Endocrine System

…………….+ exocrine pancreas

What is an endocrine gland?

 What makes it different than an exocrine

gland?

 An endocrine gland secretes its product(s)

(hormones) into the bloodstream 
hormones travel to a target tissue to exert
their effects. Think of an example.
Pituitary
 An exocrine gland secretes its product(s)
through a duct onto a surface. Again, an
example? Sweat gland
Parathyroid Glands

 Where are they? Embedded on the back side of the

thyroid
 How many are there? 4
 What hormone(s) do they secrete? Parathyroid hormone
Parathormone (PTH)

 Produced when serum calcium becomes too low

(hypocalcemia)
 Promotes:
 Ca resorption from bone
 Promotes P excretion by kidneys
 Increased formation of active Vitamin D3 by kidneys,
vitamin D absorbs calcium
 Ca absorption from gut, resorption by renal tubules
Calcitonin

 Works opposite PTH to maintain calcium homeostasis,

so secreted (by THYROID gland) in response to increased
serum Ca (hypercalcemia)
 Stops PTH resorptive action of bone
Active Vitamin D3
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol
 Formed in the kidney under PTH regulation
 Promotes Ca absorption in gut
 Don’t worry about learning this
EVALUATION

 Serum Calcium
 Serum Phosphorus
 Radiographs of bones
 Evaluation of renal function
 Knowledge of diet
Thyroid Gland

 Where is it?
 What hormones (besides calcitonin) does it secrete?
Thyroid hormone
T3 and T4

 The “thyroid hormones”

 T4 – 60% bound; 40% free to regulate TSH production
(from where??)
 T3 – biologically active form
 Stimulates basal metabolic rate
 Promotes protein synthesis
 Stimulates glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipid
catabolism, cholesterol synthesis
EVALUATION

 Serum T4 concentration
 Serum T3 concentration
 Serum cholesterol – about 2/3 hypothyroid dogs have
increased cholesterol
 TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone from pituitary gland)
response test (best test but expensive)
 Palpate thyroid gland, esp. in cats (hyperthyroidism in
older cats, T4 is above normal)
Results:

 If too low, hypothyroidism

 Common in dogs, especially larger breeds
 Sluggish, cold sensitive, skin problems
 May be over diagnosed
 If too high, hyperthyroidism
 Common in older cats due to tumor
 Active, thin, vocalize, may develop heart murmur
Adrenal Cortex

 Where are adrenal glands? Close to the kidneys

 How many are there? 2
 Which hormones do they secrete? Adrenaline
(epinephrine), norepinephrine
Glucocorticoids
(corticosteroids)
 Stress hormones
 Secretion stimulated by ACTH (adrenocorticotropic
hormone) from pituitary when blood cortisol decreases
 Cause hyperglycemia
 Suppress wound healing, inflammation, and
immunologic response. How do they change the WBC
count? (stress leukogram)
Mineralocorticoids

 Aldosterone – acts on the kidneys to regulate Na and K

balance
Androgens, Estrogens,
Progestogens
 Sex hormones – also secreted by the adrenal cortex to a
lesser degree than the gonads
EVALUATION

 Plasma cortisol concentration

 ACTH Response test (expensive test)
 Dexamethasone Suppression Test
 Blood glucose levels
 Blood cell counts
 Serum K, Na
Results:

 If levels of glucocorticoids too high,

hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing’s
Disease)
 Poor muscle tone (pot-bellied),
alopecia, organ damage
 If levels too low (mineralocorticoids
important here) – hypoadrenocorticism
(Addison’s Disease)
 Weakness, collapse, elevated serum K
Pancreas – Endocrine
Functions
 Where is it? In the abdomen close to duodenum
 What hormones does it secrete? Insulin and glucagon
Insulin

 Secreted by islet beta cells when blood glucose

elevated
 Promotes anabolic (building) metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids
Glucagon

 Secreted by islet alpha cells in response to low blood

glucose – works opposite insulin
 Promotes mobilization of energy producing substances
and inhibits transport of glucose across cell membranes
Blood glucose concentration
factors
 Increases blood glucose
 Glucagon
 Cortisols
 Epinephrine
 T4
 Growth Hormone
 Digestion and Intestinal Absorption –
simple stomached animals/humans
 Decreases blood glucose
 Insulin
 EVALUATION
 Blood glucose concentration
 Read immediately with whole blood, or separate serum within 30
minutes; 12 hour fast prior to sampling
 Urine glucose concentration
 Urine ketones
 Lipemia (common in diabetics) interferes with evaluation of
glucose concentration
 Glucose tolerance test
Results:
 Stages of hyperglycemia (increased blood glucose)
in diabetes mellitus
 1) Preclinical – prolonged after eating
 2) Persistent increase below renal threshold (140 –
170 mg/dL)
 Differentiate non-diabetic causes, i.e. stress (might not be
diabetes)
 Glucose tolerance test useful
 3) Exceeds renal threshold – glycosuria
 4) Ketoacidosis – ketonemia, ketonuria, metabolic
acidosis (persistent high, high blood sugars,
mobilizing fat for energy, ketone build up in urine,
potential fatal and always ICU)
Diabetes mellitus

 Fairly common in dogs and cats

 Cats – blood glucose levels can reach 300 mg/dL with
stress alone. Persistent levels of this sort in the dog
mean diabetes mellitus.
EXOcrine Pancreas

 Pancreas produces digestive enzymes responsible for

much of the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats.
 Secretions are transported to the duodenum via the
pancreatic duct.
EVALUATION

 Trypsin-like immunoreactivity test (TLI)

 The definitive test for Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency
(EPI); also sometimes called maldigestion
 EPI patient will be thin (can see the ribs), producing large
volumes of soft (“cow patty”) stool, and generally have a
ravenous appetite (pancreas isn’t breaking what they’re
eating down)
Typical EPI Patient Appearance
Pancreatitis (inflammation of
pancreas)
 Typical clinical presentation
 Obese
 Toy breed dog (though not always)
 Fatty meal
 Vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, painful cranial abdomen
EVALUATION

 Serum amylase
 Serum lipase
 Elevated in pancreatitis

 These are pancreatic leakage enzymes, that leak from

damaged cells to be significantly elevated in serum
 cPL Snap test
 Canine pancreatic lipase – considered a more accurate
indicator of pancreatitis
The End