ADVANCED STEEL DESIGN

A second advanced course for

steel structures design

Isaac Hernandez-Fajardo, PhD

Universidad Militar, Bogota, Colombia, 2017.
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.1. M-𝜱 Curves and Plastic Hinge Length

- Let us illustrate the plastic hinge by examining the elastic-

plastic behavior of a simple structure

- Consider the simply supported beam with an I-shaped

cross section subjected to a concentrated load at midspan

- Its behavior mainly depends on the M-𝜱 relationship of its

cross section

- We will derive this relationship right away …

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.1. M-𝜱 Curves and Plastic Hinge Length
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - Usual assumptions apply: 1) plane sections remain plane,
2) steel behave elastic-perfectly plastic 3) equilibrium
conditions

- The M-𝜱 relationship for an I-section divided into three

regimes: 1) entire section elastic 2) web elastic, flanges
partially plastic, and 3) web partially plastic, flanges fully
plastic

- Regime I: Elastic Section. Linear stress distribution.

Moment resistance obtained by adding the moments of
the stresses shown below,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section

1 𝑑−𝑡𝑓 4 1 𝑑−𝑡𝑓 2 𝑑−𝑡𝑓

[ ( )] [ ] [ ( )] ( ) [ ( )]
𝑀𝑟= 𝜎𝑚 (𝑑−𝑡𝑓 )𝑡𝑤 (𝑑 −𝑡𝑓 ) + 𝜎𝑚−𝜎𝑚 𝑡𝑓 𝑏 2𝑑− 𝑡𝑓 + 𝜎𝑚 𝑡𝑓 𝑏(2𝑑−𝑡𝑓 )
2 𝑑 3 2 𝑑 3 𝑑
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - In the previous equation, is the maximum stress in the
section and the other terms are dimensions of the section

- The first term in the rhs of the equation is the contribution

to the moment due to linear stress in the web

- The second term is the moment due to the triangular

stress in the flanges

- The last term is the moment due to the uniform stress in

the flanges
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - The equation can be simplified to,

- The flanges start yielding when . The moment resistance

becomes and it is given by,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - The curvature at this initial yield moment is,

- Regime II: Partially Plastic Flange. This is the stress

distribution for this stage
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - For this condition, the moment resistance can be written as,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - In the previous equation, the first term is due to the elastic
stress in the web;

- the second and third terms are due to the elastic stress in
the flanges;

- the last term is due to yield stress in the flanges

- Also, the parameter is,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - Simplifying the previous expression we arrive to,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 - Regime III: Web partially yielded. The stress distribution
for this stage is as follows,

- First term due to yield stress in the flanges, and second and
third terms due to yield stress and elastic stress in the web.

- Simplification of the expression above leads to …

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
 

- When the section is fully plastic, is zero, and the previous

equation becomes,

- The M-𝜱 curve of a W8X31 plotted using the previous

equations is shown below along the curves for other sections
for comparison.
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.2. M-𝜱 relationship of an I-section
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
 - Let us return to the simply supported beam of before. This
beam will remain elastic while Q is less than .

- When Q reaches that value, the extreme fibers in the critical

midspan section start yielding

- When Q exceeds Qy, the moment at midspan and at the

sections near to it exceeds My. This means that yielding
spreads along the length of the beam

- This spreading continues until the moment at midspan

reaches Mp.
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length

- At this point, the entire section at midspan has yielded and

the yielded zone spreads out over a plastic hinge length
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length

- The increase in beam curvature associated to development

of Mp at midspan does not produce a sharp kink in the
beam, but it is sufficient to simulate a hinge’s effect

- The location at which the value of Mp is reached in a

structure is called plastic hinge.

- The actual extent and shape of spread of plasticity in the

beam depend on the moment diagram

- For design purposes, the plastic hinge is assumed to occur

at a single section of the beam
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
 - For a simply supported beam with rectangular section,
extent of yielding beyond midspan can be found as follows,

- From the previous image, the distance between section C

where yielding has just begun and the end support A is,

- Where Qp is the plastic limit load. Obtaining a from above,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
 - Taking gives,

- Where f is the shape factor of the section and L is the beam

length

- From previous figure, the hinge length can be found as,

- So, this is the hinge length for this beam under a midspan
concentrated load. This length will differ for other beams
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
 - The distribution of yielded zone within the hinge length also
depends of the M-𝜱 curve of the section

- The plastic zone distribution can be obtained by equation

the moment within the hinge length to the M-𝜱 expression in
the elastic-plastic regime

- For a rectangular section we have that the moment in the

elastic-plastic regime is,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Length
 - And the moment distribution for the moment in the beam is,

- Where x is the distance from the midspan. Equating both

rhs, we arrive to an expression for ,

- Where defines the boundary between elastic and plastic

regions in the cross-section

- For I-section or other shapes process is the same. Note that

two equations are required for I-shapes
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization
 - Using exact nonlinear M-𝜱 curves in the analysis of steel
structures beyond the elastic range requires iteration

- Iteration eliminated and solution simplified by using idealized

M-𝜱 curves formed by two straight lines like this
and

- With . The idealized M-𝜱 curve is linear up to moment and

plastic thereafter. Also, plastic rotation assumed to occur at
plastic hinge, hinge length = zero
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
- Example. Determine the plastic hinge length of a simply
supported beam with uniform load as shown below,

- Solution. Consider the following moment diagram once the

critical section at midspan fully plastifies,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
 - Now, we proceed to find the distance between section C,
where yielding just began, and the end support A. We do
this by equating the moment at C to the yield moment My,

Where is the uniform load at which the moment at the

midspan section plastifies. The value of is,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
 - Substituting in the first equation and solving for a,

- Finally, considering the following image, the hinge length is

- With f = 1.14, is found to be 0.35

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
- Example. Determine plastic hinge lengths at ends and
midspan of the fixed-ended beam with concentrated load
shown,

- Solution. Consider the following moment diagram once the

critical section at midspan fully plastifies,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
 - At the collapse stage, the bending moment at a distance x
from end A is,

Where is the plastic limit load when moments at the ends and
midspan all reach Its value is given by,

- Hinge length at Ends. obtained by equating moment at D to

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
 

Substituting and solving for , we arrive to,

- Hinge length at midspan. obtained by equating moment at

E to
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.3. Plastic Hinge Idealization: Examples
 

Substituting and solving for , we arrive to,

Thus, the hinge length is found as,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - Plastic analysis much simplified by using the idealized M-𝜱
curve

- Limit moment capacity in this idealization is is the full plastic

moment. Full means all fibers in section are plastic

- Knowledge of is critical. For steel sections this value

depends on yield stress of steel and section’s geometry

- Its calculation can be summarized in two steps as follows,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - First, locate the plastic neutral axis, PNA. Second, calculate
as the sum of the moments of the forces resulting from
stresses in the section

- The first step is the most critical. Like its elastic relative, the
plastic neutral axis is found by considering equilibrium in the
axial direction

- At fully plastic state, the stress is the yield stress over the
whole section, and hence, if the section is made of one
single steel, the PNA is found by dividing the cross-sectional
area into two equal parts
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - Example. Rectangular section. The section is made of one
single steel. The PNA divides the section is two equal parts.
So the PNA is at a distance from the top of the section,

With lever arm equal to so the full plastic moment is,

- Example. Wide Flange Section: Same as above, PNA

divides section in equal parts, i.e., it is located at d from the top
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - The full plastic moment can be thought of as formed by the
sum of the moments of the forces in the flanges and in the
web of the section.

- The magnitudes and lever arms for these forces are,

So, the plastic moment turns out to be,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - Example. Solid Circular Section. The PNA passes through
its center, so compressive and tensile forces are equal,

- The lever arm for these forces is twice the distance from the
centroid of the half-circle to the center of the circle, i.e., ,
And the full plastic moment is,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
 - Example. Solid Circular Section. The PNA passes through
its center, so compressive and tensile forces are equal,

- The lever arm for these forces is twice the distance from the
centroid of the half-circle to the center of the circle, i.e., ,
And the full plastic moment is,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. The Full Plastic Moment
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - We now know that the full moment capacity can be written
as,

Where Z is the plastic section modulus which depends solely

on the shape of the cross section

- Z can be calculated as the first moment of the area with

respect to the PNA.

- Values of Z are given in the AISC Manual for all hot rolled
sections. However, sometimes these sections are modified
by adding cover plates or by cutting flanges
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
- For such cases, Z is not given. Z must be calculated!

- However, such calculations can be simplified by modifying

the value of Z for the standard section in the Manual
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - For the arbitrary section shown above with area 2A and one
axis of symmetry. A cover plate is added at its bottom.

- Assume the yield strengths of the section and of the plate

are and , respectively.

- In the plastic condition, the cover plate force will be So for

axial equilibrium, the PNA will move down taking an area a’
moves from the tension to the compression side,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - Resulting plastic stress distribution considered as sum of
two parts: 1) stress distribution in original section and 2)
change in stress distribution introduced by cover plate

- Full plastic moment determined by adding plastic moment of

the original section and moment contributed by cover plate

- Last term equal to moment of the couple formed by the

cover plate and the fictitious force induced by stress acting
on area a’
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - Example. A member in a frame must have a plastic moment
capacity of 300 kip.ft. Select the lightest wf section for this
member using A36 steel

- Solution: The required plastic section modulus is,

- From the AISC Manual, these sections satisfy this

requirement:
W16X57 Zx = 105 in3 W18X50 Zx = 101 in3
W21X50 Zx = 110 in3 W24X55 Zx = 134 in3

- Use W21X50
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
- Example. A W21X50, A36 section is modified by adding a
cover plate. Determine moment plastic capacity of new
section if,
a) A36, 8″X3/4″ plate used as cover plate
b) Grade 50, 8″X3/4″ plate used as cover plate

Solution.
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 -Solution. A36 cover plate. Calculate a’, the area that must be
transferred from tension to compression,

This means, the PNA is below the regular centroid by,

- The enhanced plastic moment is the sum of the original

capacity plus the moment caused by a couple formed by the
cover plate force of 6*36 and the web force of 3*72

- The lever arm of the couple is

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 … And hence, the full plastic moment for the new section is,

- Solution. Grade 50 cover plate. Calculate a’,

A value greater than the web’s area, (20.38/2-0.535)*0.38 =

3.75, and hence some portion of the flange gets transferred.
Disregard fillets between flanges and webs, and consider
section formed by 3 rectangles

- The stress condition for this portion of the problem is,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section

- The shaded are in web and flange is to be transferred from

tension to compression. The additional moment contributed
by two couples
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - A 1st couple formed by web force and part of the cover plate
force. A 2nd one formed by the flange force and the
remaining part of the cover plate force

The distance between the web force and the cover plate is,

- The flange force is,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.4. Design of a Cross Section
 - The distance between the flange force and the cover plate
is,

And hence the full plastic moment is,

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5. Effect of Axial Load
- Application of axial compression to a cross section induces
uniform stress over the section.

- Applying a bending moment produces linear variation of

elastic stress
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5. Effect of Axial Load
- Further increase in moment, under constant axial load, will
eventually cause yielding on the compression zone of the
cross section

- This will be followed by yielding in the tension zone, and

eventually yielding of the full cross section

- During this process, the neutral axis shifts progressively

towards its final location in the plastic state

- The plastic moment capacity under this condition can be

found from the two usual equilibrium conditions,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5. Effect of Axial Load
 

- The presence of axial compression reduces the full plastic

moment capacity of a section

- This reduced capacity is named and its value depends on

the magnitude of the axial load
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.1 Rectangular Section
- The full plastic stress diagram is made of two portions

- Axial load assumed supported by a central portion of the

cross-sectional area under yield stress in compression

- Bending moment assumed supported by top and bottom

portions under yield stress (T in bottom, C at top)
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.1 Rectangular Section
 - The extent of the central portion is found as,

And the reduced plastic moment capacity, expressed in terms

of is,

- Now, consider that and , we can write

4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.2 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Strong Axis
 - For low compression loads, the PNA will remain in the web.
For larger values, it will move in the flange.

- The equation for such cases are as follows. Hereafter d

stands for the full depth of the wide-flange section.

- The equation for PNA in the web, i.e., for the case when ,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.2 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Strong Axis
 - For PNA in flange, i.e., for

- Where l is the lever arm of the couple formed by the T anc C

forces in the flanges and is given as,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.2 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Strong Axis
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.2 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Strong Axis
 - For design purposes, these equations can be approximated
by the following simpler expressions,

For

For

- This approximation is somewhat conservative for most shapes

except when is small: even there, maximum error < 5%
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.3 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Weak Axis
 - The equation for PNA in the web, i.e., for the case when ),
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.3 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Weak Axis
 - For PNA in flange, i.e., for
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.3 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Weak Axis
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.5.3 Wide-Flange Section Bending about Weak Axis
 - For design purposes, these equations can be approximated
by the following simpler expressions,

For

For

- Note that the influence of axial compressive load P may have

to also include its effect on column buckling as it is done in
Chapter H of the AISC specification.
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6. Effect of Shear Force
 - Shear force combined with bending moment results in a two-
dimensional stress system in a section. This makes it harder!

- Exact solution of governing equations in often intractable, so

approximations and simplifications must be used for practical
solutions using the following equilibrium equations,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6. Effect of Shear Force
 - And the Von Mises yield criterion,

Here and are the normal and shear stresses at a point in the
beam section at a distance from the neutral axis

- The approximate solutions are always a lower bound for the

exact solution. We will study these lower bound solutions for
rectangular and wide-flange sections
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6.1. Rectangular Section
- Consider beam element with rectangular cross section. Its
elastic solution under combined bending and shear has this
stress distribution,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6. Effect of Shear Force
 - … stress distribution,

And

Where is the depth of the beam. Notice that the extreme stress
conditions occur with maximum axial stress at and maximum
shear stress when

- This elastic stress distribution can be used to find the lower-

bound solution for the reduced bending moment as,
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6. Effect of Shear Force
 

And

Where is the depth of the beam. Notice that the extreme stress
conditions occur with maximum axial stress at and maximum
shear stress when
4. THE PLASTIC HINGE
4.6.1. Rectangular Section