A2-Level Maths:

Core 4
for Edexcel

C4.3 Sequences
and series
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 Negative and fractional indices

Binomial expansion for negative and fractional

Contents

indices
Approximations
Use of partial fractions
Examination-style question

2 of 26 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Binomial expansion

Previously in the course we found that, when n is a positive

whole number,

n n( n  1) 2 n( n  1)( n  2) 3
(1+ x ) = 1+ nx + x + x + ... + x n
2! 3!

This is a finite series with n + 1 terms.

If n is negative or fractional then, provided that |x| < 1, the
infinite series
n( n  1) 2 n( n  1)( n  2) 3
1+ nx + x + x +...
2! 3!
will converge towards (1 + x)n.

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Binomial expansion

In general, for negative and fractional n and |x| < 1,

n n( n  1) 2 n( n  1)( n  2) 3
(1+ x ) = 1+ nx + x + x + ...
2! 3!

1
Expand up to the term in x4.
1+ x

Start by writing this as (1 + x)–1.

The expansion is then:
( 1)( 2) 2 ( 1)( 2)( 3) 3 ( 1)( 2)( 3)( 4) 4
1+ ( 1) x + x + x + x ...
2! 3! 4!
 1 x  x 2  x3  x 4 ...
This is equal to (1 + x)–1 provided that |x| < 1.
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Binomial expansion

Expand 1 + 2x up to the term in x3.

1
Start by writing this as (1+ 2 x ) . 2
Here x is replaced by 2x.

1 ( 1 )(  1 ) ( 1 )(  1 )(  3 )
2 2 2 2 2 2
(1+ 2 x ) = 1+ ( 21 )(2 x) +
2
(2 x) + (2 x)3 + ...
2! 3!
=1 + x  1
2 x2 + 1
2 x 3 ...

This converges towards 1 + 2x provided that |2x| < 1.

1
That is when |x| < 2.

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Binomial expansion

When the first term in the bracket is not 1, we have to factorize

it first. For example:

Find the first four terms in the expansion of (3 – x)–2.

2
2   x 
(3  x ) = 3  1   
  3 
2
2  x
= 3 1 
 3
1 
2 3
 x  ( 2)(  3)  x  ( 2)( 3)( 4)  x 
= 1+ ( 2)    +    +    +...
9   3 2!  3 3!  3 
1  2 x x 2 4 x3 
= 1+ + + + ...
9 3 3 27 
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Binomial expansion

21 2 x x 2 4 x3
Therefore (3  x ) = + + + + ...
9 27 27 243

This expansion is valid for 3x < 1.

That is, when |x| < 3.
In general, if we are asked to expand an expression of the
form (a + bx)n where n is negative or fractional we should start
by writing this as:
n
n   bx  
( a + bx ) =  a  1+  
  a 
a
The corresponding binomial expansion will be valid for |x| < .
b

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Binomial expansion
 21
Expand (4 + 3 x ) up to the term in x2 giving the range of
values for which the expansion is valid.
 21
  3 x 
 21
(4 + 3 x ) =  4  1+ 
  4 
 21
 3x 
 21
= 4  1+ 
 4 

1  1  3 x  (  2 )(  2 )  3 x 
1 3 2

= 1   +   + ... 

2 2 4  2!  4  

1  3 x 27 x 
= 1 + + ... 
2 8 128 

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Binomial expansion

 21 1 3 x 27 x
Therefore (4 + 3 x ) =  + + ...
2 16 256

3x
This expansion is valid for 4 < 1.

That is, when |x| < 34 .

4
3

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 Approximations

Binomial expansion for negative and fractional

Contents

indices
Approximations
Use of partial fractions
Examination-style question

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Approximations

In general, when the index is negative or fractional, we only

have to find the first few terms in a binomial expansion.
This is because, as long as x is defined within a valid range,
the terms get very small as the series progresses.
For example, it can be shown that:
(1  x )1 = 1+ x + x2 + x3 + x 4 +... for x  1
If x is equal to 0.1 we have:
(1  0.1)1 = 1+ 0.1+ 0.01+ 0.001+ 0.0001+...
(0.9)1 = 1.1111...
By only using the first few terms in an expansion we can
therefore give a reasonable approximation.

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Approximations

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Approximations

If we only expand up to the term in x it is called a linear

approximation. For example:
(1  x )1  1+ x (for |x| < 1)

If we expand up to the term in x2 it is called a quadratic

approximation. For example:
(1  x )1  1+ x + x 2 (for |x| < 1)
Binomial expansions can be used to make numerical
approximations by choosing suitable values for x.
1
Write a quadratic approximation to (4  x ) and use this to find
2

a rational approximation for 3 .

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Approximations
1
1   x  2

(4  x ) =  4  1   
2

  4 
1

 x 2

= 2 1 
 4
  1  x  ( 21 )(  21 )  x 2 
= 2  1+     +    +... 
  2  4  2!  4  
 
 x x2 
= 2  1+  + + ...  (for |x| < 4)
 8 128 
 1
1 1 
Let x = 1: (4  1)  2  1  +
2

 8 128 
113
 3
64
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Approximations
1
2
Expand (1+ x ) up to the term in x2 and substitute x =
2
9 to
obtain a rational approximation for 11.
11 ( 21 )(  21 ) 2
(1+ x ) = 1+ x +
2
x + ...
2 2!
= 1+ 21 x  81 x + ... (for |x| < 1)

When x = 92 we have:
1  1  2   1  4 
(1+ 9= 1+        + ...
2 )2
 2  9   8  81 
11 1 1
= 1+  + ...
9 9 162
11 162 18 1
= +  + ...
3 162 162 162
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Approximations

11 179
Therefore =
3 162
537 179
11 = =
162 54
We can check the accuracy of this approximation using a
calculator.
179
= 3.315 (to 3 d.p.)
54
11 = 3.317 (to 3 d.p.)
Our approximation is therefore correct to 2 decimal places.
If a greater degree of accuracy is required we can extend the
expansion to include more terms.

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 Use of partial fractions

Binomial expansion for negative and fractional

Contents

indices
Approximations
Use of partial fractions
Examination-style question

17 of 26 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Use of partial fractions

We can use partial fractions to carry out more complex

binomial expansions.
5x  1
For example, we can expand by expressing it in
( x +1)( x  2)
partial fractions as follows:
5x  1 A B
Let  +
( x +1)( x  2) x +1 x  2
Multiplying through by (x + 1)(x – 2) gives:
5 x  1  A( x  2) + B( x +1)

When x = –1: 5  1= 3 A

A=2
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Use of partial fractions

When x = 2: 10  1= 3B
B =3
5x  1 2 3
So  +
( x +1)( x  2) x +1 x  2
 2( x +1)1 + 3( x  2)1
 2(1+ x )1 + 3( 2 + x )1

We can now expand 2(1 + x)–1 and 3(–2 + x)–1 :

1 ( 1)( 2) 2 ( 1)( 2)( 3) 3 
2(1+ x ) = 2  1+ ( 1) x + x + x + ... 
 2! 3! 

= 2 1  x + x 2  x3 + ... 
= 2  2 x + 2 x 2  2 x3 +...
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Use of partial fractions

This is valid for |x| < 1.

1
1  x
1
3( 2 + x ) = 3( 2)  1  
 2
This expands to give:
3 
2 3
 x  ( 1)( 2)  x  ( 1)( 2)( 3)  x 
  1+ ( 1)    +    +    + ... 

2  2 2!  2  3!  2 

3 x x 2 x3 
=   1+ + + + ... 
2 2 4 8 
3 3 x 3 x 2 3 x3
=     ...
2 4 8 16
This is valid for |x| < 2.

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Use of partial fractions

We can now add the two expansions together:

2 3  3 3 x 3 x 2
3 x 3

+
x +1 x  2
 2 3

= 2  2 x + 2 x  2 x +... +       ... 
 2 4 8 16 
1 11x 13 x 2 35 x3
=     ...
2 4 8 16
This is valid when both |x| < 1 and |x| < 2.

–2 –1 0 1 2
From the number line we can see that both inequalities hold
when |x| < 1.

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 Examination-style question

Binomial expansion for negative and fractional

Contents

indices
Approximations
Use of partial fractions
Examination-style question

22 of 26 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Examination-style question

The function f is given by

6
f ( x) = , x  , x  21 , x  1
(1+ 2 x )(1  x )
a) Express f(x) in partial fractions.
b) Expand f(x) as a series in ascending powers of x as far as
the term in x2.
c) State the set of values of x for which the expansion is
valid.
6 A B
a) Let  +
(1+ 2 x )(1  x ) 1+ 2 x 1  x
Multiplying through by (1 + 2x)(1 – x) gives:
6  A(1  x ) + B(1+ 2 x )
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Examination-style question

When x =  21 : 6 = A(1+ 21 )
A=4

When x = 1: 6 = B(1+ 2)
B=2

6 4 2
So  +
(1+ 2 x )(1  x ) 1+ 2 x 1  x

4 2
b) + = 4(1+ 2 x )1 + 2(1  x )1
1+ 2 x 1  x

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Examination-style question

Expanding 4(1 + 2x)–1 gives:

 ( 1)( 2) ( 1)( 2)( 3) 
4(1+ 2 x )1 = 4  1+ ( 1)(2 x ) + (2 x)2 + (2 x )3 + ... 
 2! 3! 

= 4 1  2 x + 4 x 2  8 x3 +... 
= 4  8 x +16 x 2  32 x 3 + ...

Expanding 2(1 – x)–1 gives:

 ( 1)( 2) ( 1)( 2)( 3) 
2(1  x )1 = 2  1+ ( 1)(  x) + (  x)2 + (  x)3 +... 
 2! 3! 


= 2 1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + ... 
= 2 + 2 x + 2 x 2 + 2 x3 +...
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Examination-style question

Therefore f(x) can be expanded as:

4 2
+ = (4  8 x +16 x 2  32 x 3 + ...) + (2 + 2 x + 2 x 2 + 2 x3 + ...)
1+ 2 x 1  x
= 6  6 x +18 x 2  30 x3 +...
1
c) The expansion of (1 + 2x)–1 is valid for |x| < 2 .

The expansion of (1 – x)–1 is valid for |x| < 1.

1
The expansion of f(x) is therefore valid for |x| < 2 .

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