Log Analysis School

Basic Log Analysis Course
Log Analysis 1
History
Log Analysis 2
History
Log Analysis 3
History
Log Analysis 4
History
Log Analysis 5
History
Log Analysis 6
History
Log Analysis 7
History
First Elog
Log Analysis 8
History
Log Analysis 9
History
Log Analysis 10
History – Halliburton Logging
1930s
• In the mid-1930’s Schlumberger dominated the market
• In 1936 Dr. Blau (Humble Oil) developed single cable logging system.
• In 1936, encouraged by a number of major oil companies, Halliburton enters
logging business.
• In 1937 Halliburton signed an agreement with Humble Oil, to use Dr. Blau’s
patents.
• Schlumberger sued and wins case in Houston courts.
• Halliburton appeals to the federal courts and wins
• Schlumberger decides not to appeal to the supreme court.
• In 1938, Halliburton begins commercial caliper logging.
• In 1939, Halliburton developed the “Russian Gun” for export.
Log Analysis 11
1930s
Log Analysis 12
1930s
Log Analysis 13
1940s
Log Analysis 14
1940s
• Halliburton cement and stimulating business continues to grow.
• Halliburton develop FM logging system.
• FM system featured SP and three resistivity curves.
• First commercial logs run in 1949
1950s
• The first guard log introduced (1950)
• Entered radiation logging business through a license with the Texas
Company
• Logging trucks of the period were four wheel drive, painted red and silver.
• Approached Paul Charrin of PGAC, in hopes of penetrating the logging
market in 1955.
• Purchased Welex for $28,000,000
Log Analysis 15
1940s
Log Analysis 16
1950s
Log Analysis 17
1950s
Log Analysis 18
1950s (continued)
• Welex became surviving logging unit after the merger, 1957
1960s
• In 1961, Welex facility in Forth Worth was closed
1970s
• In the fall of 1977 Halliburton began an aggressive plan to improve logging
training and technology.
• W.D.M. Smith was recruited from Dresser Atlas in Canada
• Multi-conductor cable and digital data transmission introduced.
Log Analysis 19
1980s
• 1988, Halliburton buys Gearhart
1990s
• 1997, Halliburton buys Numar (and your instructor)
Log Analysis 20
1970s
Log Analysis 21
1980s
Log Analysis 22
Theory
Log Analysis 23
Basic Formation Model
(No Hydrocarbons)
Rock
Matrix Porosity
Volume of Volume of
Rock Matrix Water
VolumeTotal = VRM + VW SW = 100%
1 = (1-) + 
Log Analysis 24
Traditional Sand-Shale Model
(with Hydrocarbons)
Rock Effective
Matrix Shale Porosity
Volume of
Hydrocarbons
Volume of
Rock Matrix
Volume Volume of
of Shale Water
VolumeTotal = VRM + VSH+ VW + VHC
Log Analysis 25
SAND SHALE POROSITY A More Complete
Model
Movable
Quartz Clay
Fluids
Dry Dry Movable

Dry quartz BVI CBW
quartz clay Fluids
Dry Dry Movable

CBW BVI
quartz clay Fluids
Dry matrix Total Fluids
Solids Fluids
Clay- Capillary-
Rock Dry Free Hydro-
Bound Bound
Matrix Clay Water Carbon
Water Water
Log Analysis 26
Shale ≠ Clay
Shale: a type of rock
– formed in a low-energy environment
– mixture of clay-sized & silt-sized particles
Basic Al – Si - O layer
• Clays: a grain size
– very fine grains of certain minerals (< 4 m)
– hydrous aluminum silicates that tend to form in very thin sheets
(1mm or less), with minor amounts of potassium (K), magnesium
1 – 2 nm
(Mg), iron (Fe), and other trace elements (often radioactive)
– bind water inside the sheets and on their surfaces (relatively large)
– detrital clays: deposited with sand and silt grains as thin
laminations, clasts or even individual grains
– authigenic clays: chemical crystallization in the pore spaces after
deposition
• Silts: a grain size
– fine grains of minerals, often quartz or feldspars
– bind water on their surfaces (relatively small)
Layered structure of a smectite clay
Sand: a type of rock

– a type of rock, formed in a higher-energy environment
– mixture of larger particles than in shale
NPHI RHOB Minor Elements
Montmorillonite 24-50 2.20 - 2.70 Ca, Mg, Fe
Illite 10-25 2.64 - 2.69 K, Mg, Fe, Ti
Chlorite 30 - 50 2.60 – 3.00 Mg, Fe
Kaolinite 35-40 2.60 - 2.65 -
Quartz 0 2.65 -
K-Feldspars 0 2.53-2.60 much K
Log Analysis 27
Shales and Clay Distributions
Clean Sand (no shale or clay)

– Massive package of uniform, large grains of (usually)
quartz
– Possibly layers of different grain sizes
– Possibly poor sorting of grains in each layer
Laminated Shale
– Thin layers of detrital clay (less than 1 cm thick to
several cm) – very low energy environment
– Thin layers of larger, silt-sized grains of quartz or
feldspars – slightly higher energy deposition
– Often about 2 parts clay to 1 part silt (rule of thumb)
Structural Clays
– Sand with some larger clumps of detrital clays
Dispersed Clays
– Sand with very fine authigenic clay crystals overgrown
on larger sand grains, in the pore space
Log Analysis 28
Resistance
resistance
R
L
R A cross sectional area
A L length
 resistivity – R per
unit volume
Area
Length
Log Analysis 29
Electrical Conductance in Rocks
Note: conductance = 1/resistance
Log Analysis 30
Formation Resistivity as
Resistance of unit cube
1 meter
Resistivity
1 -m2/m
- +
1 Volt
Log Analysis 31
Calculating Resistivity
- +
L - +
1 Volt 1 Volt
L A
R L
A
Log Analysis 32
Calculating Resistivity (cont.)
Only the saline water in the porosity

conducts current
A
conductive area = area of face x porosity  12    
L
R  

Log Analysis 33
Calculating Resistivity (cont.)
low porosity
.62
L0.16  2

a
L  1 f     x

1
Lsandstone 

fractures
L fractures  1
Log Analysis 34
Calculating Water Wet
Resistance (Ro)
L
R   = Rw
A
a Rw = resistivity of
connate water
 x


a a a
   1 x Ro  Rw m
  x
 
a
 m

Log Analysis 35
Calculating Total Resistance (Rt)
(formations with hydrocarbons)
A  Sw
 a 
L  f  
x 
  Sw   Rw = resistivity of
L connate water
Rt 
A a
Rt  Rw n m
a Sw 

 Sw 
x
a Rw
Sw Sw  m
n
 Rt
a

Sw x 1 ( x 1 )
a

Swn m
Log Analysis 36
Water Saturation
Log Analysis 37
The Archie Equation
Tortuosity Factor and Formation Water Resistivity

Cementation Exponent
aR
S
wn w
R
m
t
Saturation Exponent
Porosity Uninvaded Zone Resistivity
Log Analysis 38
Archie Water Saturation Variables
• a
– Related to the rock conductivity
– Usually 1
• m
– Cementation or Porosity exponent
– Usually 2
• Lower in rocks containing hydraulically connected pores
(fractures)
• Higher in rocks containing hydraulically isolated pores (vugs)
• n
– Saturation exponent
– Usually 2
– Varies by degree of wetability - Oil Wet = high “n”
Log Analysis 39
Tortuosity Factor and
Cementation Exponent
SANDSTONES
CARBONATES
Porosity > 16% Porosity < 16%
(Humble) (Tixier)
a 1.0 0.62 0.81
m 2.0 2.15 2.0
Assumptions based on lithology and porosity
Log Analysis 40
Archie’s Equation
Clean Formation Model
Matrix
Vw V fluid
Sw  T 
V fluid Vtotal
Capillary Bound Water Rhdrocarbon   Rmatrix  
Free Water
Rw  f ([Cl  ], Temp ) Rw
T
FRw aRw
Hydrocarbon
Sw  n Sw  n m
Rt T Rt
Log Analysis 41
Quick-Look
Rt = 5 -m  = 0.28
Lithology is sandstone
a = 0.62
m = 2.15
Sw = ?
Assume Rw = 0.04 -m
Log Analysis 42
Ro/Rt method
a Rw a Rw
Sw  m
n
Sw  m
n
 Rt  Rt
 aRw  1  aRw  1
Sw   m 
n
1   m 
   Rt    Rt
1  aRw 
Sw  Ro 
n
Rt   m 
Rt  
Ro Ro  Rt ( sw  1)
Sw  n
Rt
Log Analysis 43
Rw- Water resistivity
Rwa- Apparent water resistivity RT - True Resistivity

of the formation
Ro -The resistivity of the formation

if it was 100% water saturated
Log Analysis 44
Exercises
Chapter 7:
Question #2
(avg phi)
Question #3
(sw from Ro/Rt -figure 7-8)
Question #4
(Rw from Ro and Phi)
Question #5 – discuss problem!
(sw from F, Rw and Rt - @ 5350)
Question #8
(gas crossover)
Log Analysis 45
Practical example 1
Log Analysis 46
Practical example 1 – Ro
 m
Rwa  Rt
a
a
Ro  m Rw

Log Analysis 47
Practical example 1
Log Analysis 48
Practical example 1
Log Analysis 49
Archie and Dual Water Models
FRw aRw
Sw  n n m
Rt  Rt
aRWA  m RT
1  m
n
RWA 
 RT a
RW
SW  n
RWA
If a=1, m=2, then

RWA   2 RT
R0
SW  n
RT
Log Analysis 50
Dual Water Model
  Swb   Swb 
Ct  t . Cw 1    Ccw  
w w
S wt
  Swt   Swt 
Ct : Total Conductivity of the Formation { 1 / Rt }
 t : Total Porosity { Free Fluid  + Capillary Bound Water  + Clay Bound Water  }
Cw : Conductivity of the Formation Water { 1 / Rw}
W : Constant depends on “n,” “m,” & “Sw” { (n . log Sw + m . log ) / log ( . Sw ) }
Swb : Saturation of Clay Bound Water { (clay / total ) or ( 1 - e / total ) }
Swt : Total Water Saturation { Swe = Swt = Swb / 1 - Swb }
Ccw : Conductivity of Clay Bound Water { 0.000216 . ( Tf - 16.7) . (Tf + 504.4)}

Log Analysis 51
Processing Flow
Log Analysis 52
Basic Concepts of Log Analysis
Flow Chart
• Total Porosity Determination
• Shale Volume Determination / Lithology
• Determine Effective Porosity
• Determine True Resistivity
• Water Resistivity
• Water Saturation, Bulk Volume Water
• Identify Potential Pay Zones
• Summarize Porosity and Permeability in Pay
Zones
Log Analysis 53
TPOR
Total Porosity
Log Analysis 54
General Rock Model
Shaly formation
Matrix
Solid
Dry Clay
Vsh
Clay Bound Water
Capillary Bound Water
Free Water
e t Liquid
Hydrocarbon h
Dual Water Model
Log Analysis 55

– Crossplot Porosity is Lithology Independent
• Average Density/Neutron porosity thru Liquid-Saturated
Zones
D  N
T 
2 tlog  t ma
• Sonic Porosity in washed out zones S 
t fl  t ma
• Weighted Density or Geometric Mean thru Gas-Saturated
or tight Zones
2 D   N or    D   N
2 2
T  T
– MRIL 3 2
– Local crossplot method
Log Analysis 56
Total Porosity
Log Analysis 57
Density - Neutron
Log Analysis 58
Spectral Density - Pe Log
• Principle of Measurement
– Measures Borehole-Compensated Electron Density
– Far and Near Scintillation Detector Count Rates and a Medium
Energy Gamma Ray Source
– Bulk Density conversion from Electron Density
assuming 2Z/A = 1
• Uses
– Bulk Density and Porosity
– Lithology and Gas Identification when combined with Neutron
– Overburden Stress
– Synthetic Seismic
Tool Spec
Log Analysis 59
Compton Scattering photoelectric effect
Log Analysis 60
Table of Nuclides
Log Analysis 61
A and Z values
Log Analysis 62
Z and A ratios for
common minerals
Log Analysis 63
Density Correction
Spine & Ribs Method
mud cake borehole

Log Analysis 64
Density Porosity
 b   fl  1     ma
 ma   b
d 
 ma   fl
Log Analysis 65
Density Porosity Equation
 bulk   f  d   ma 1  d 
 bulk   ma
d 
 f   ma Rhob/Phi chart
Common Matrix & Fluid Values

Density (gm/cc) Pe
Sandstone 2.65 1.81
Limestone 2.71 5.08
Dolomite 2.87 3.14
Fresh Water 1.0 0.36
Salt Water (120kppm) 1.1 0.81
Oil 0.85 0.12
Log Analysis 66
Spectral Density - Pe Log
• Limitations
– Bad or Rugose Hole
• Porosity Increases and is Optimistic
• Bulk Density Decreases
• Recommend do NOT use only a caliper limit to set bad
hole flag and discriminate data. Use DRHO limit
• Pe is usually effected more than Density
• Pe curve reads high (20 – 50+) through bad hole sections
filled with Barite-Weighted Mud
– Density Porosity increases thru Gas-Bearing Zones
(gas < liquid)
– Inaccurate through Casing
• Environmental Corrections are Minor

– Small Borehole Size and Mud Weight Corrections
Log Analysis 67
Tool Specs
Spectral Density Log
Log Analysis 68
Exercises – Density – Chapter 17
• Question #2– 3
Log Analysis 69
Dual Spaced Neutron
– Measures Borehole-Compensated Formation Hydrogen Index
– A High Energy Neutron Source, Far and Near He 3 Detector Thermal
Neutron Count Rates
• Uses
– Porosity
– Lithology Identification when Combined with Density
– Gas Detection when Combined with Density or Sonic
– Through Casing Evaluation
– Open Hole -Cased hole comparisons can be used for basic
reservoir monitoring - indicate movable gas
Log Analysis 70
Dual Spaced Neutron
• Limitations
– Rarely used as a stand alone porosity device except in
cased holes – for correlation
– Porosity is Lithology Sensitive
– Rugose boreholes degrade the Measurement
– Shale Increases Porosity
• Environmental Correction
– Sensitive to almost everything
• Temperature-Pressure
• Borehole & Formation Salinity, Mudcake Thickness,
Mud Weight ECL1
• Standoff, Borehole Size
• EC usually offset each other <200 F ECL2
Log Analysis 71
Dual Spaced Neutron Log
Log Analysis 72
Density – Neutron Xplot
Log Analysis 73
Density Neutron Crossplot
Log Analysis 74
Chart based on assumed
limestone logging matrix
Sandstone 2.65 1.81

Limestone 2.71 5.08
Dolomite 2.87 3.14
Anhydrite 2.96 5.0
Salt 2.165 4.5
Log Analysis 75
Exercises – Neutron
chapter 18
• Questions #2 – 5
Log Analysis 76
MRIL
Log Analysis 77
MRIL Tool
Borehole
9 Sensitive MRIL Probe
Volume
Cylinders
(each 1 mm thick 760kHz 580kHz
at 1 mm spacing) ~1”
24”
Log Analysis 78
MRIL Measures Fluid
Log Analysis 79
T2 and Pore Size
100
80
Incremental Porosity %
Phi 60
40
20
T2
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (ms)
Log Analysis 80
MRIL Log Example
Log Analysis 82
Acoustic (Sonic)
• Compressional slowness (DTC)

• Shear slowness (DTS)
• Stoneley
– Formation porosity
– Fracture detection
– Formation mechanical properties
– Tie-in to seismic data
Log Analysis 83
Compressional Waves
(P waves)
Longitudinal
Energy transport
The only mechanism of acoustic energy transport in

gases and liquids.
Log Analysis 84
Shear Waves
(S waves)
Energy transport
Transverse
Common mechanism of energy transport for ridged bodies

and for surfaces
Log Analysis 85
Modern Array Sonics
Log Analysis 86
Compressional Waves
Log Analysis 87
Shear Waves
Log Analysis 88
Flexure Mode
(dipole mode)
Log Analysis 89
Log Analysis 90
Sonic Porosity Equation
t log  t fl s  t ma 1   s 
tlog  t ma
s  Wylie
t fl  t ma Time Average
Common Matrix & Fluid t Values (usec/ft)
Sandstone 51.3-55.5
Limestone 47.6  2  T   Sonic
Dolomite 43.5
Fresh Water 189
Salt Water (120kppm) 185
Oil 220
Log Analysis 91
Log Analysis 92
Porosity Transforms
0.40
0.30
Porosity
0.20
0.10
Wyllie
Mod. Chapman
0.00
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
DTc (us/ft)
Log Analysis 94
Important Sonic Equations
 1   t  t ma 
s    c
 C   t  t  Wyllie
 p  f ma 
t
1  ma
tc Raymer-Hunt-Gardner
s 
t ma  t f
Vc t s
VpVs   VpVs
Vs tc
2
 t s 
   2
 t
   c2
Poisson’s ratio
 t 
2 s   2
 tc 
Bulk modulus

G  b2
t s
  t s  
2
 4  3  
 b   t
 c  Young’s modulus
   2G 1      2   2 
 t s    t s  
1   
  c  
t
Log Analysis 95
Sonic Curves
DTc
DTs
Sonic Porosity
Log Analysis 96
Compute TPOR
Log Analysis 97
We have TPOR
We now need Epor
Log Analysis 98
VSH
Log Analysis 99
• Shale Volume Determination

– Determination of what Vshale calculation
best relates to core analysis or geological
reality
– Typically GR is used
– In some reservoirs Density Neutron works as
a second shale indicator (be careful in gas)
– Resistivity or SP can also be used
Log Analysis 100

Gamma Ray Tools
Natural and Spectral
– Measures Total Scintillation Response to Natural Gamma Radiation
Emitted by the Formation
– Measures Spectral Scintillation Response of Natural Gamma Ray
Emitters (K, U, Th)
• Uses
– Shale Volume GRlog  GRCL
VSH 
– Correlation
GR SH  GRCL
• Well to Well, Open Hole to Cased Hole

– Lithology Identification
– Combinable with nearly all other Logging Tools
– Clay Typing
• Uranium-corrected GR Curve
Log Analysis 101

Gamma Ray Tools
• Limitations
– Vertical Resolution Degrades at High
Logging Speed (> 6000 feet/hr)
– Spectral tools run at (900 feet/hr)
• Environmental Corrections
– Hole Size & Mud Weight
– KCL Mud
Log Analysis 102

Natural Gamma Ray Log
Log Analysis 103

Shale Volume – Steiber Method
Log Analysis 104

Naturally-occurring
Radioactive Materials Decay
e-
 K
40 Beta decay
1.46 MeV (89%)
Gamma decay
(11%)
Ca
40
40
Ar
NaI crystal Photomultiplier tube

 e-
Signal
amplifiers
photo-cathode
bias voltages in PM & counters
tube
Log Analysis 105

Primary Calibration Method
5.5-in. J55
steel casing
Cement
API Shale
U 13 ppm + 200 API units
Th 24 ppm
K 4%
Cement
48 in.
diameter
Log Analysis 106

GR and Shale Volume
100%
Linear
Steiber (N=3)
Clavier
80%
Bateman (1.0)
Bateman (2.0)
Shale Volume, %
60%
40%
20%
0%
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Gamma Ray Index, I
Log Analysis 107

Gamma Ray – Vshale equations
Gr  Gr
I  Vsh 
Grmax  Grmin
 
1
VshClavier  1.7  3.38  ( I  .7) 2 2
I 0.5 I
VshSteiber  
 N   N  1 I  1.5  I
(N=3)
I  GR factor Grfactor
VshBateman  I
(1.2-1.7)
Log Analysis 108

Spectral GR & Clay Types
20
28 Th/K = 12
heavy Th
minerals
3.5
16
K-feldspar
Thorium, ppm
12 mixed
glauconite layer clays
e
init
2
l
kao
illite, muscovite
8 illite
0.8
mixed layer clays micas
montmorillonite (illite-montmorillonite)
teri
glauconite
chlo
4 0.6
kaolinite/chlorite
feldspars 0.5
bauxite
potassium evaporites
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 10 100
Potassium, %
Th/K ratio x 104
Log Analysis 109
Minerals
Log Analysis 110

Gamma Ray Corrections
Log Analysis 111

Exercises – Gamma Ray
chapter 10
• Questions 1 and 2
Log Analysis 112

Spontaneous Potential (SP)
– The SP is a Naturally Occurring DC Potential Relative
to a Surface Ground and Measured in the Borehole
Mud
– The Measured Potential is Created by Chemically
Induced Electric Current flow
• Liquid Junction, Membrane, and Streaming
Potential
• Uses
– Quantitative Rw Determination
• Clean, Wet, Thick Beds, Sand / Shale Sequences
– Well to Well Correlation
– Define Bed Boundaries
– Qualitative Indicator
• Shale Content
• Identify Permeable Zones
Log Analysis 113

SP, mV SP, mV
V V
fish
electrode
bridle
electrode - +
SP log
Log Analysis 114

Net current flow
+ -
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+ Cl - Na+ Cl-
Cl -
Cl -
Na+ Na+
Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

Cl- Cl- Cl- Cl-
Na +
Na+
Cl- Cl-
Na +
Na +
Original Condition Dynamic Condition
Log Analysis 115

Mud
Shale
+ - Sand
Connate Mud + -
water filtrate
+ -
Current
+ -
Shale
Log Analysis 116

Na+ Net current flow
Na+
Na+
Cl- Na+ Na+ Cl-
Cl- Cl-
Na+
Na+ Na+
Cl- Cl-
Mud
Log Analysis 117

Shale
Baseline
Esh membrane
SP
Eliq junction
Mud
Log Analysis 118

Spontaneous Potential
• Limitations
– Fresh Mud Systems Only
– Works Best in Clean, Wet, Thick Beds, Sand / Shale
Sequences
– Suppressed by
• Hydrocarbons
• Shale, Silt and Clay
– Distortion in Highly Resistive and Low Permeability Beds
– Bed Thickness
• Vsh = (SP-SPcl) / (SPsh-SPcl)
Log Analysis 119

SP example
Log Analysis 120

Vsh from SP
SP  SPclean
Vsh 
SPshale  SPclean
Log Analysis 121

Fine
Transgressive
Alluvial Point Bars
Shoreline Deposits Bell
Coarse
Distributary Channels
Turbidites
Uniform Cylinder
Coarse
Regressive Funnel
Delta Marine Fringe
Shoreline Deposit
Offshore Bars
Fine
More examples
Log Analysis 122
Litho Track
Log Analysis 124

Compute VSH
Log Analysis 125

Lithology - Matrix
Log Analysis 126

Density – Neutron Xplot
Log Analysis 127

A Sand Shale Model
Log Analysis 128

M – N xplots
 t f  t  1
M  
     100
 b f 
 Nf   N
N
b   f
Log Analysis 129

Mineral Identification Plot
(MIP-2)
Log Analysis 130

Preparing for MIP-2
U maa  7
 maa  2.68
Log Analysis 131

Mineral Identification Plot
(MIP-2)
Log Analysis 132

MIP - 1
Log Analysis 133

EPOR
Log Analysis 134

General Rock Model
Shaly formation
Matrix
Solid
Dry Clay
Vsh
Clay Bound Water
Free Water
e t Liquid
Hydrocarbon h
Dual Water Model
Log Analysis 135

• Effective Porosity Determination
– Determination of what porosity measurement
or combination of porosity measurements best
relates to core porosity
 E  T 1  VSH   E  T  VSH  SH 
Log Analysis 136

Effective Porosity
Log Analysis 137

Compute EPOR
Log Analysis 138

Flow Chart
• Shale Volume Determination / Lithology
• Determine Effective Porosity
• Determine True Resistivity
• Water Resistivity
• Water Saturation, Bulk Volume Water
• Identify Potential Pay Zones
• Summarize Porosity and Permeability in Pay
Zones
Log Analysis 139

Resistivity
Log Analysis 140

The Borehole Environment
Log Analysis 141

Resistivity - Review
1 meter
Resistivity
1 -m2/m
- +
1 Volt
Log Analysis 142
Lateral Devices
V=IR Ohms law
Log Analysis 143

Lateral Devices
Log Analysis 144

Induction Principles
Received Detected
Signal, I2(t) Magnetic Field, B2(t)
Receiver
Secondary Magnetic Field Induced

(from induced formation Formation
currents)
Current
J(t) ≈
E(t)
Transmitter ~
Alternating Oscillating Transmitted
Signal, I(t) Magnetic Field, B(t)
Log Analysis 145

It
Ixo
Im
Tool
Borehole
Invaded Zone
Uninvaded Zone
Log Analysis 146

When to Run Induction
High Water Medium Water Low Water Resistivity,
Resistivity, Rw Resistivity, Rw Rw
High Mud Normally OK for Perfect for Perfect for induction

Resistivity, Rm induction logs, if induction logging. logging.
porosity > 8%
otherwise Rt may be
too high (over 250 -
m)
Medium Mud Normally OK for Perfect for Perfect for induction
Resistivity, Rm induction logs if induction logging. logging.
porosity > 10%
Low Mud Not advised. Borehole Acceptable for induction
Resistivity, Rm signal will often be logging if porosity > 6%
larger than formation and hole diameter < 10
signal inches, otherwise
borehole signal may
overwhelm formation
signal
Log Analysis 147

Dual Induction HRI, HRAI
3 30
0
20 20
Porosity (%)
Porosity (%)
Induction
Preferred
HRI
Use either Use either
method
Preferred
10 10 method
Laterolog
Preferred Laterolog
Preferred
0 0
0.1 1 10 100 0.1 1 10 100
Rm/Rw Ratio Rm/Rw Ratio
Dual Induction Log
– Induces Current Flow within the Formation
– Measures Formation Conductivity
• Uses
– True Formation Resistivity (Rt) Determination in Low
Conductivity Mud
• Fresh- and Oil- Based Mud, Air Filled Holes
– Water Saturation
– Flushed Zone Resistivity (RX0)
– Diameter of Invasion
– Combinable with Porosity Logs
– Well-to-Well Correlation
Log Analysis 149

Dual Induction Log
• Limitations
– Conductivity Measuring Device
• Works best when Rt < 50 Ohm–M and Rmf > 2.5*Rw
– Thick Beds
• Deep Induction Vertical Resolution
– ILD 5 ft
– Borehole Corrections
– Bed Thickness Corrections
– Invasion Corrections
Log Analysis 150

Dual Induction Log
Log Analysis 151

Resistivity Determination
• What corrections need to be made?

– Dual Induction / High Resolution
Induction
• Borehole
• Bed Thickness
• Invasion
– Dual Laterolog – MSFL
• Invasion
Log Analysis 152

Exercises – Induction
Chapter 12
• Questions 1 – Dual
Induction – Short Guard
Borehole Corrections
• Question 3 – Dual
Induction – Short Guard
Invasion Corrections
Log Analysis 155

RW
Log Analysis 156

Water Resistivity Determination
• Where to get Rw Information:

– Water Catalogues
– Measured Samples from offset wells
– Estimated From Salinity
– Selected from Rwa Calculation
– Calculated from SP
– Pickett Plot
– Depositional Environment
– Vshale Rwa Crossplot
Log Analysis 157

PICKETT Plot
Log Analysis 158

Formation Water Resistivity (Rw)
Resistivity of the water, and only the water, that

is present in the formation of interest.
The most important variable in the Archie equation.

Dramatic effects on calculated values of Sw
The most difficult measure to obtain.

SFT/RDT/DST Produced water Rw catalog Logs
Customer
Log Analysis 159

SP – Computing RW
 R mf 
SP   K log( ) theoretical
 Rw 
K
 T f  505

 Tc  226 
8 5
  Rmfe 
SP   K log  “activity corrected”
  Rwe 
Log Analysis 160

Rmfe/Rwe from SSP
Log Analysis 161

Rmfe from Rmf
Log Analysis 162

Rw from Rmfe/Rwe
Rmfe
 SSP
Rwe
Rmfe  Rmf
Rmfe
Rwe 
Rmfe
Rwe
Rw  Rwe
Log Analysis 163

Exercises – Rw from SP
Chapter 9
• Questions 1 – 7
Log Analysis 164

Sw
Log Analysis 165

Irreducible Water
Log Analysis 166

General Rock Model
Shaly formation
Matrix
Solid
Dry Clay
Vsh
Clay Bound Water
Free Water
e t Liquid
Hydrocarbon h
Dual Water Model
Log Analysis 167

Capillary Pressure
Pc = h * f h
The smaller the pore throat,

the higher the capillary pressure,
the more water is bound and immobile,
the lower the permeability to brine
Log Analysis 168
Capillary Pressure (Pc) and K
Pore structure 2 cos
(no clay) Pc 
r
· Capillary pressure is controlled by pore structure
(i.e. surface area).
re · Capillary pressure controls initial reservoir Sw
· Initial reservoir Sw controls K
· Swir decreases the effective radius re and
exponentially reduces K.
Pore structure
(with clay)
re
Log Analysis 169

Irreducible Water Saturation Determination
• Generally determined by calculation
Swirr  xPHIE y
• x = 0.1, 0.12 (Rockies)

• y = -0.85, -0.5 (Rockies)
– Related to pore throat connectivity, tortuosity, grain

size, grain size distribution
• Irreducible Bulk Volume Water
– BVI = PHIE * Swirr
• The Best method is MRIL!
Log Analysis 170

Estimated Bulk Volume Irreducible Water
BVI
Log Analysis 171

Permeability
Log Analysis 172

Permeability
Permeability (k): a measure of how easily fluids flow through rock.
k permeability
L
Q fluid flow rate
 fluid viscosity A
A flow cross-section
Q L Q permeability, k Q
k
L flow length
P pressure drop along flow length
P A
P
Consider fluids trying to pass between the grains in a clastic rock.
Ease of flow (k) is related

to:
- amount of pore space
Higher Lower - diameter of pore throats
Pressure Pressure - type of fluid
Log Analysis 173

Permeability is a Dynamic Function
Darcy’s Law
L
P2
A
P1
P
Where:
Q = rate of flow, cm3/sec
A ( P1  P2 ) A = cross sectional area, cm2
QK L = Length, cm
L  P1 = initial pressure, psi
P2 = producing pressure, psi
 = Fluid viscosity, cP
Log Analysis 174

Predicting K from Porosity
Cubic Packing Fundamental Problems
· K is assumed to be a constant but it
varies with rock type and formation:
 K is a function of packing, grain
shape, grain size distribution and
 = 47.6 % tortuosity
K = 5000 md · Porosity is controlled by:
r = 2.0   Packing
 Grain size distribution
· Permeability is controlled by:
r  Packing
 Grain size
 Grain size distribution
 = 47.6 % · Porosity is independent of grain size
K = 5.00 md
r = 0.5 
Log Analysis 175

Permeability Determination
• Permeability is generally a function of porosity

and saturation (Pore shape geometry)
• MRIL is great if you have it
– Core Analysis may be necessary in new fields
• For conventional logs, the Permeability should be
modeled with core or reservoir simulation to get a
good match
• Core permeability should be corrected for
overburden stress and hydrocarbon type
Log Analysis 176

Methods to Determine Permeability
Direct Measurement
Method Approximate Radius of
Investigation
Core Analysis (plug or whole core) 0.1 ft
Log Analysis Methods 0.1 to 5 ft
Formation Tester (draw-down) 0.01 to 1 ft
Formation Tester (build-up) 10 to 100 ft
Drill Stem Test 100 to 10,000 ft
Extended Well Test 10,000 ft +
Traditional Log-Derived Permeability

Timur k = 85804.4S-2w-irr
Wyllie-Rose k = S-2C26 S = Sw-irr+ Swb, C = 250 (oil) or 79 (gas)
Carmen k = A-23 A = grain surface area per unit volume
MRIL Log-Derived Permeability

Coates k = (MPHI/10)4(FFI/BVI)2 exponents & scale factor
may be adjusted
Log Analysis 177

Combining K,  and Swir
0.5 2
 C 3

K   
0.4
 S wir 
Where: C = 250
0.3
Porosity
1000
r eases
c Also - Timur
100 Sw ir) in
0.2
(  x Equation:
10
 4.4
0.1
1.0
K, mD K  0.136 2
S wir
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Swi
Log Analysis 178
Permeability and Porosity
Higher rock porosity is generally associated with higher permeability
But the relationship is not consistent across all formations.
Examples of some
porosity-perm trends,
from lab studies
Three Popular
Poro-Perm Models
Carmen
Timur
Wyllie-Rose
Wyllie-Rose appears to have

Carmen k  3 the right slope for sands
Timur k  4.4
Wyllie-Rose k  6
Log Analysis 179

K – Wyllie Rose
2
 250 3

k    oil
 S wi 
2
 79 3

k    gas
 S wi 
Log Analysis 180

Estimating Swi
Log Analysis 181

Permeability Exercise
• Question 7 -12 (use Wylie & Rose - p. 6-18)

• Question 7- 13 (use Wylie & Rose – p. 6-18)
Log Analysis 182

Permeabilty – resistivity gradient
Log Analysis 183

Perm- Resisitivity Gradient
Log Analysis 184

Permeability Execise
• Question #14 (use Resistivity gradient – p. 6-21)
Log Analysis 185

Coates Bound Fluid Permeability Model
• Standard Form: C1 = 10, C2 = 4, C3 = 2

• Calculates an ambient air permeability
• The perm equation assumes water-wet conditions
• Confidence in the permeability data increases with reservoir-
specific information
Log Analysis 186

Log FFI/BVI Perm vs Porosity
92-2X
Log Analysis 187

Core Perm vs Porosity
Bomboco 92-2x
KH_air = 0.003705(10^(14.881902*PHI_core))
r=0.77
Log Analysis 188

Permeability Summary
• Core perm analysis aids in establishing correlations

used to estimate in-situ perms
• Air perms are very optimistic and should not be
used for production predictions
Log Analysis 189

Permeability Comparisons
• In General for the same core:

– Air Perm > Klinkenberg Perm
– Klinkenberg Perm > Brine Perm
– Brine Perm > Brine Perm @ Net Overburden
– Brine Perm @ Net Overburden > In-situ Hydrocarbon
Perm @ In-situ Fluid Saturation and Net Overburden
Log Analysis 190

Multi-Fluid Permeability
• Hydrocarbon and water don’t mix

– Interfacial tension exists between the two fluids
– Water wets the rock and reduces pore space for other
mobile fluids
– Two (or more) fluids must move through pore throats
• Results:
– Reduced “effective” permeability for both fluids
Log Analysis 191

Relative Permeability
• When two fluids are each trying to pass through the same pore throats, surface tension
& capillary pressure effects slow them both down.
• The wetting phase (that wets the grain

surfaces) has a slight mobility advantage.
1.0 1.0
for Non-Wetting Fluid
for Wetting Fluid

Irreducible Water Saturation
Residual Oil Saturation
Total permeability
Water Oil
0 0 (wetting phase) (non-wetting phase)
Swirr 1-Sor
Wetting Fluid Saturation (Water, Sw)
Log Analysis 192

Water – Oil Ratio and Water Cut
1.0 1.0
• If Sw = Sw-irr, there will be no water
production, since krw = 0. All water is krw, kro, or krg
for Non-Wetting Fluid

capillary-bound on the grains.
for Wetting Fluid
Irreducible Water Saturation
• But, Sw-irr will vary with porosity.
Residual Oil Saturation

• Above the transition zone, the product
BVWirr=  x Sw-irr will be constant
Total permeability
Local rules of thumb for BVWirr can help identify water-

free production:
0 0
Swirr 1-Sor
Wetting Fluid Saturation (Water, Sw)
Hi-perm Sands BVIirr = .015 – .030
 = 25 – 35% k = 1000 – 5000 md (oil)
krw = kw/k relative perm to water
kro = ko/k relative perm to oil
Low-perm Sands BVIirr = .03 – .06
 = 12 – 18% k = 10 – 50 md (oil) krg = kg/k relative perm to gas
Very Tight Sands BVIirr = .03 – .08

k rw  w
 < 12% k < 5 md (oil)
Water/Oil Ratio WOR 
k ro  o
% Water Cut  o  WOR
WCsurface 
(@ surface)  w   o  WOR
Log Analysis 193
Capillarity & Transition Zones
Hi-Perm Formation Low-Perm Formation
- larger pore throats - narrower pore throats
any water or oil is

Gas Sw = Sw-irr capillary-bound, immobile Gas
Gas-Oil Transition Zone
any water is
Sw = Sw-irr Oil
Oil capillary-bound, immobile
Oil-Water Transition Zone
Water
Water
Sw = 100%
• Gas transition zones are generally shorter than oil-water transition zones. Why?
• Sw-irr is normally lower in the gas zones than in the oil zones. Why?
Log Analysis 194

Capillarity
Lab example of gas-water contact Gravity pulls water down
Surface tension at gas-

Tubes of different radii r water interface makes
water stick to the tube, a
force opposing gravity
Column height h
2T cos 
h
rg (  water   air )
Inter-facial tension T
Wetting angle θ
Tray of water
• Narrower tubes (pore throats) have greater capillary pressure (1/r)

• Large differences in fluid densities increase capillary pressure (1/difference)
Log Analysis 195

Capillary Pressure, Texture and K
Well Log
Gamma Rd PHID
SP Rm PHIN
250
75 150 225 300 375

Height above free water, feet.
Well Bore 1240 67.3 4.51 md
Prod.
A
200
A C
C
150
Pc, psi
oil B
B
100
water
oil
50
oil
water Free Water Pc = 0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation, %
A 4.51 md B 1240 md C 67.3 md

Log Analysis 196
Combining K,  and Swir
0.5 2
 C 3

K   
0.4
 S wir 
Where: C = 250
0.3
Porosity
1000
r eases
c Also - Timur
100 Sw ir) in
0.2
(  x Equation:
10
 4.4
0.1
1.0
K, mD K  0.136 2
S wir
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Swi
Log Analysis 197
CVX Perm
Core Perm
Oil Perm
Coates Free Fluid Perm
Log Analysis 198

Depth of Investigation & Vertical Resolution
Measurement DOI (in) VRES (in) VOLUME (in3)

– EMI 0.1 0.2 10-3
– Density 1.5 33 101
– Neutron 6 36 102
– Gamma Ray 4 - 11 18 - 36 103
– Sonic (20 kHz) 6 24 103
– Dual Lat Med 24-36 24 104
– Dual Lat Deep 60-84 24 105
– HRI DFL 17 17 103
– HRI Medium 39 12-24 104
– HRI Deep 91 12-24 105
– 1” X 2” Core Plug 100
– 1’ of 4” Core 102
– 1 Acre-Feet @ 10% Porosity 107
– 80 Acre-Feet @ 20% Porosity 109
– 160 Acre 10 Feet-Thick Reservoir 1011
Log Analysis 200
Reservoirs
Log Analysis 201

Estimating Recoverable Oil Reserves
1. Use minimum effective porosity, maximum GR, to exclude

non-productive intervals
2. Calculate bulk volume hydrocarbons BVHC over all

potentially productive intervals
BVHC = e x (1 – Sw)
Thickness = h
3. Multiply BVHC by pay thickness to get hydrocarbon feet: Area = A
HCFT = h x BVHC
Porosity = 
4. Multiply HCFT by drainage area for the well (or size of the
Saturation = Sw
field) to get oil in place:
OIP = e x (1 – Sw) x (hA) x 7758
(using ft & acres give OIP in oil barrels)
5. Estimate N, recoverable reserves:

N = OIP x (RF/B)
RF = recovery factor, usually 0.2 to 0.3
B = formation volume factor (approx 1.2 for oil)
Log Analysis 202

Standard Reservoir Analysis Method
1. Identify potentially productive reservoir rocks.

2. Estimate formation lithology & porosity
3. Calculate water saturation & BVW in zones of interest.
4. Differentiate between oil-productive, gas-productive and water-productive
intervals.
5. Calculate OIP or reserves (if needed)
Log Analysis 203

Reservoir Properties
• Depositional Environment • A Good Geo
• Thickness - Gross Sand and Net Pay
• GR, Analysis
• Porosity
• Hydrocarbon Saturation • SDL,DSN,MRIL
• Drainage Area • Analysis
• Permeability • Reservoir Eng
• Relative Permeability
• MRIL, Analysis
• Wetability
• Reserves
• Correlations
• Cash Flow • Core Analysis
Log Analysis 204

Pay Summaries
• Gross Sand
– Footage where GR < GR Cutoff
• Net Pay
– Footage where PHIE > PHIcutoff, Sw < Swcutoff
and Vshl < Vshale cutoff
– In some projects K can be used as a cutoff
– Some projects use Rt, GR, PHIE, HPV as cutoffs
• This is the method used to modify the “h”
from the logs to match reservoir simulation
Log Analysis 205

Net Sand on
Structure Map
Demonstrates
Stratigraphic
Trapping
J3 Net Sand and Structure

Log Analysis 206
J3 Sand Erosional Surface
N
N
J3 Sandstone
Log Analysis 207

Log Analysis School

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Basic Log Analysis Course

VolumeTotal = VRM + VW SW = 100%

VolumeTotal = VRM + VSH+ VW + VHC

Dry Dry Movable

Dry Dry Movable

Dry matrix Total Fluids

Sand: a type of rock

Clean Sand (no shale or clay)

Note: conductance = 1/resistance

Only the saline water in the porosity

conductive area = area of face x porosity  12    

Tortuosity Factor and Formation Water Resistivity

a 1.0 0.62 0.81

m 2.0 2.15 2.0

Assumptions based on lithology and porosity

Capillary Bound Water Rhdrocarbon   Rmatrix  

Assume Rw = 0.04 -m

Rwa- Apparent water resistivity RT - True Resistivity

Ro -The resistivity of the formation

If a=1, m=2, then

Cw : Conductivity of the Formation Water { 1 / Rw}

W : Constant depends on “n,” “m,” & “Sw” { (n . log Sw + m . log ) / log ( . Sw ) }

Swb : Saturation of Clay Bound Water { (clay / total ) or ( 1 - e / total ) }

Swt : Total Water Saturation { Swe = Swt = Swb / 1 - Swb }

Ccw : Conductivity of Clay Bound Water { 0.000216 . ( Tf - 16.7) . (Tf + 504.4)}

Capillary Bound Water

Dual Water Model

• Total Porosity Determination

mud cake borehole

Common Matrix & Fluid Values

• Environmental Corrections are Minor

Spectral Density Log

Sandstone 2.65 1.81

• Compressional slowness (DTC)

The only mechanism of acoustic energy transport in

Common mechanism of energy transport for ridged bodies

Common Matrix & Fluid t Values (usec/ft)

• Shale Volume Determination

Log Analysis 100

• Well to Well, Open Hole to Cased Hole

Log Analysis 101

Log Analysis 102

Log Analysis 103

Log Analysis 104

NaI crystal Photomultiplier tube

Log Analysis 105

Log Analysis 106

Log Analysis 107

Log Analysis 108

Log Analysis 110

Log Analysis 111

Log Analysis 112

Log Analysis 113

Log Analysis 114

Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

Original Condition Dynamic Condition

Log Analysis 115

Log Analysis 116

Log Analysis 117

Log Analysis 118

Log Analysis 119

Log Analysis 120

Log Analysis 121