MECHANICS OF METAL

CUTTING
 Topics to be covered
 Inroduction to Machining Technology
 Cutting Models
 Turning Forces
 Merchants Circle
 Power & Energies
Elements of Metal Cutting
 Heat Generation Zones
30% (Dependent on )

(Dependent on  60%

Chip
Tool

Workpiece

10%
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)
Tool Terminology
Side Rake
(SR), +
Back
Rake
End Cutting (BR),+
edge angle
(ECEA)
Turning
Facing Cutting
Cutting edge
edge Nose
Radius Side relief
angle
Side cutting
edge angle
(SCEA)
Clearance or end
relief angle
Cutting Geometry
Material Removal Rate
MRR  vfd

Roughing(R)
f  0.4  1.25mm / rev
d  2.5  20mm

Finishing(F)
f  0.125  0.4mm / rev
d  0.75  2.0mm

v R  v F
 Cutting Models

Tool
Tool

workpiece
workpiece

ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY OBLIQUE GEOMETRY

 Assumptions
(Orthogonal Cutting Model)

 The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular

to the direction of motion, and it generates a plane surface
as the work moves past it.
 The tool is perfectly sharp (no contact along the clearance
face).
 The shearing surface is a plane extending upward from
the cutting edge.
 The chip does not flow to either side
 The depth of cut/chip thickness is constant uniform
relative velocity between work and tool
 Continuous chip, no built-up-edge (BUE)
Orthogonal Cutting

to ls sin 
r 
tc ls cos(   )

r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 

AC AD  DC
    tan(    )  cot 
BD BD
 ‘Turning’ Forces For Orthogonal
Model
Velocity of F C Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)
Tool relative to
workpiece V DIRECTION OF ROTATION

WORKPIECE
Fr Radial
Force (6%)

Longitudinal Ft 'A' 'A'

'Thrust' Force (27%)

CUTTING TOOL
Fc
DIRECTION OF FEED

Ft

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the radial component End view section 'A'-'A'
 ‘Facing’ Forces For Orthogonal Model
Velocity of F C Tangential Force
Tool relative to 'Cutting' Force
DIRECTION OF ROTATION workpiece V

WORKPIECE
Fr Radial Force
‘Thrust’ Force

FL
Longitudinal Force

CUTTING TOOL

DIRECTION OF FEED

Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic

Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component End view
 'Turning' Terminology
Standard Terms
D
N is the speed in rpm
Workpiece D is the diameter of the
N
rpm workpiece
f is the feed (linear
distance/rev)
Tool d mm d is the depth of cut
V is the surface speed
feed
(mm/rev) = DN

Beware, for turning: In the generalized

orthogonal model depth of cut (to) is f (the feed),
and width of cut (w) is d (the depth of cut)
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
(Simple 2D mechanistic model)
Chip thickness tc
Velocity V
Rake
Angle
+
Chip tool
Tool

depth of cut
t0

Shear Angle Clearance Angle



Workpiece

Mechanism: Chips produced by the shearing process along the shear plane
 Cutting Ratio
(or chip thicknes ratio)
Chip
tool


B
tc
to 
A
Workpiece

to tc
As Sin = and Cos-) =
AB AB
t0 sin
Chip thickness ratio (r) = =
tc cos()
 Experimental Determination of
Cutting Ratio

Lc Shear angle  may be obtained

wc tc either from photo-micrographs
or assume volume continuity
t0 (no chip density change):
L0
w0

Si nc e t 0w 0L 0 = t cw cL c and w 0=w c (e xp. e vi de nc e )

t0 Lc
Cutting ratio , r = =
tc L0
i.e. Measure length of chips (easier than thickness)
 Shear Plane Length
and Angle 
Chip

tool

B
tc
to 
A
Workpiece

t0
Shear plane length AB =
sin
-1 rc os
She ar pl ane angl e () = Tan
1-rsi n
or make an assumption, such as  adjusts to minimize
0
cutting force:  = 45 + /2 - /2 (Merchant)
 Shear Velocity
V
c = Chip Velocity
(Chip relative to tool)
Velocities
(Chip relative (2D Orthogonal
to workpiece) V
s V = Cutting Velocity Model)
Chip
(Tool relative to
Tool
workpiece)

Workpiece
Velocity Diagram
Vc
Vs

From mass c onti nui ty: Vt o = V ct c
si n 
V c = Vr and V c = V
c os()
 
From the Ve l oc i ty di agram:
V
c os
Vs = V
c os()
 Cutting Forces
(2D Orthogonal Cutting)
Chip Tool
Generally we know:
Tool geometry & type
R Workpiece material
 F
Fs and we wish to know:
Fn R
N F = Cutting Force
F c = Thrust Force
R F t = Friction Force
Fc N = Normal Force
Workpiece Ft R F s = Shear Force
Fn = Force Normal

Dynamometer to Shear

Free Body Diagram

Force Circle Diagram
(Merchants Circle)

Fs Tool

Fc 



F F
t n


 R



F

N
 Results from
Force Circle Diagram
(Merchant's Circle)
Friction Force F = Fcsin + Ftcos
Normal Force N = Fccos - Ftsin
 = F/N and  = tan typically 0.5 - 2.0)
Shear Force Fs = Fccos - Ftsin
Forc e Normal to She ar pl ane F n = F csi n + F tc os
 Forces on the Cutting Tool
and the workpiece
 Importance: Stiffness of tool holder, stiffness of machine, and
stiffness of workpiece must be sufficient to avoid significant
deflections (dimensional accuracy and surface finish)
 Primary cause: Friction force of chip up rake face + Shearing
force along shear plane
 Cutting speed does not effect tool forces much (friction forces
decrease slightly as velocity increases; static friction is the
greatest)
 The greater the depth of cut the greater the forces on the tool
 Using a coolant reduces the forces slightly but greatly
increases tool life
 Stresses
On the Shear plane:
Fn Fnsin
Normal Stress = s = Normal Force / Area = =
AB w tow
Fs Fssin
Shear Stress = s = Shear Force / Area = =
AB w tow
Note: s = y = yield strength of the material in shear

On the tool rake face:

N
 = Normal Force / Area = (often assume tc = contact length)
tc w
F
 = Shear Force / Area =
tc w
 Pow
er
•Power (or energy consumed per unit time) is the product of
force and velocity. Power at the cutting spindle:
Cutting Power Pc = FcV
•Power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone and on the rake
face:
Power for Shearing Ps = FsV s
Friction Power Pf = FV c

•Actual Motor Power requirements will depend on machine

efficiency E (%): Pc
Motor Power Required = x 100
E
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
Volume Removed
Material Removal Rate (MRR) =
Time
Volume Removed = Lwto

Time to move a distance L = L/V

Lwto
Therefore, MRR = = Vwto
L/V

MRR = Cutting velocity x width of cut x depth of cut

 Specific Cutting Energy
(or Unit Power)
Energy required to remove a unit volume of material (often quoted as
a function of workpiece material, tool and process:

Energy Energy per unit time

Ut = =
Volume Removed Volume Removed per unit time

Cutting Power (Pc) FcV Fc

Ut = = =
Material Removal Rate (MRR) Vwto wto

FsV s
Specific Energy for shearing U s =
Vwto
FV c Fr
Specific Energy for friction Uf = =
Vwto wto
 Specific Cutting Energy
Decomposition
1. Shear Energy/unit volume (Us)
(required for deformation in shear zone)

2. Friction Energy/unit volume (Uf)

(expended as chip slides along rake face)

3. Chip curl energy/unit volume (Uc)

(expended in curling the chip)

4. Kinetic Energy/unit volume (Um)

(required to accelerate chip)

U t = U s + U f +Uc +U m
 Specific Cutting Energy
Relationship to Shear strength of Material

SHEAR ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME

FV s s
Specific Energy for shearing Us =
Vwto
sc os
Us = = s.
si n c os()
FRICTION ENERGY / UNIT VOLUME
FV c Fr F
Specific Energy for friction Uf = = = =
Vwto wto wtc

APPROXIMATE TOTAL SPECIFIC CUTTING ENERGY

U t = U s + U f = s +   y1+ )
Relation between Pressure and
Cutting velocity
Effect of Rake angle on Cutting
Force
Average Unit Horsepower Values
of Energy per unit volume
 Typical Orthogonal Model
Violations
• Geometry and form Violations (i.e. non zero angles of
inclination, not sharp - radiused end)
• Shear takes place over a volume (not a line or plane)
• Cutting is never a purely continuous process (cracks develop
in chip; material not homogeneous)
• 'Size Effect' - larger stresses are required to produce
deformation when the chip thickness is small (statistical
probability of imperfection in the shear zone)
• BUE - some workpiece material 'welds' to the tool face
(cyclic in nature)