Chapter 32: Reptiles and Birds

Section 1: Reptiles
 What Is A Reptile?
• Reptiles are vertebrate animals that have lungs, a
scaly skin, and a special type of egg – adaptations
that enable them to live their entire life out of water
• Reptiles are widely distributed over much of the Earth
• The reptiles thick skin helps prevent loss of body water
• The tough, scaly layer of skin does not grow when the
rest of the reptile grows, so it must be shed
periodically when a reptile increases in size
 What Is A Reptile?
• Reptilian eggs are surrounded by a shell and
several membranes that create a protected
environment in which the embryo can develop
– Amniotic egg
• Amniotic eggs also contain a yolk
• The yolk is rich in nutrients that the developing
embryo uses until it is ready to hatch
 What Is A Reptile?
• Reptiles have an efficient respiratory
system
• To exchange gases with the environment,
reptiles have at least one efficient lung
The chameleon, a modern reptile, moves slowly and
deliberately, creeping up to its insect prey. Its eyes
are able to move independently of each other, so that
one eye can guide its movements and the other can
sight the victim.
Unlike most amphibians, reptiles are able to survive
quite well in dry environments, as this snake in a
cactus shows. Their survival is due in part to their
dry, scaly skin, which must be shed periodically.
The reptile egg shows adaptations to
survive the dryness of life on land.
This tiny turtle has just hatched and is
breaking free of its shell.
 Evolution of Reptiles
• Because several fossils show characteristics of both
amphibians and reptiles, it is difficult to say exactly
when the first true reptiles appeared on Earth
• One determining factor that separates living reptiles
from amphibians is the type of eggs they produce
• Because we cannot tell what kind of eggs these fossil
animals laid, they must remain on the amphibian-
reptilian borderline
• These animals are often called transition fossils
 Evolution of Reptiles
• Throughout most of the Carboniferous Period, amphibians
greatly outnumbered reptiles
• But during the Permian Period, the Earth’s surface and
climate changed dramatically
• The climate became cooler and less humid
• Many of the great swamps dried up
• These changes made life difficult for a large number of
water-dependent amphibians
• But such was not the case with the reptiles
• It was during this time that they began their great period of
adaptive radiation
 Evolution of Reptiles
• One early reptile line developed into a fascinating
group pf mammal like reptiles that displayed a mix of
reptilian and mammalian characteristics
• Although these animals were extremely successful at
first, they became extinct in just a few million years
• Toward the end of the Triassic Period, about 195
million years ago, the mammal like reptiles were
suddenly replaced in the fossil record by another
group of reptiles that had remained in the background
for millions of years – the dinosaurs
 Evolution of Reptiles
• During the late Triassic and Jurassic Periods, a
great adaptive radiation of the dinosaurs, or
“terrible lizards,” took place
• The Triassic Period also saw the appearance of
crocodiles and alligators, as well as the first birds
• At the end of the Cretaceous Period, about 65
million years ago, something happened to cause a
worldwide mass extinction
 Evolution of Reptiles
• Within a few million years, dinosaurs and most
other animal and plant groups became extinct
• Whatever happened at the end of the Cretaceous
Period resulted in the death of virtually all the
great and terrible lizards
• The disappearance of the dinosaurs left open many
niches for animals, both on land and in the sea
 Form and Function in Reptiles
• Reptiles exhibit numerous variations in
structure and behavior
• Some – for example, turtle, crocodiles, and
lizards – move about on four legs
• Others move about without legs
– Snakes and certain lizards
 Feeding
• Some are herbivores and others are carnivores
• Some have sharp teeth to capture prey
• Others kill their prey by drowning it first
• Some reptiles have sticky tongues that can
catch insects
All snakes are carnivores. Many snakes
eat small mammals. Because they are
able to stretch their jaws wide, snakes
swallow their prey whole. A
chameleon obtains its food by flicking
out its sticky tongue over a great
distance. Any insects within striking
range are gobbled up.
 Respiration
• May reptiles are able to expand their chest cavity to
inhale and collapse the cavity to force air out
• Although most reptiles have two lungs, some species of
snakes have only one
• You know that it is impossible for a person to breathe and
swallow simultaneously
• Snakes have a special tube in the floor of their mouth
through which they breathe, so they don’t suffocate in the
time it takes them to swallow their prey
• This tube can be extended out of a snake’s mouth while it
is dining
 Internal Transport
• Reptiles have a well-developed double-loop
circulatory system
• One of the two loops brings blood to and from
the lungs and the other loop brings blood to
and from the rest of the body
• Have a well-developed heart
• Have a well-developed circulatory system
This illustration shows the internal organs of a
turtle. The turtle’s top shell is actually fused to its
vertebrae. Other reptiles differ slightly from this
body plan.
 Excretion
• Eliminate wastes in the form of urine, which is
produced in the kidneys
• Urine flows through tubes directly into a
cloaca similar to that of amphibians
• In some reptiles, a urinary bladder stores urine
before it is expelled
 Response
• Most reptilian sense organs are well-developed
• Have complex eyes that contain photoreceptor
cells
• Many snakes have a good sense of smell
• Some reptiles have simple ears to hear
(eardrum, tympanic membrane)
• Some reptiles are able to gather heat
information from their environment
Unlike certain snakes, the gila monster does not
have fangs to inject its venom. Instead, it bites its
prey and lets its venom flow into the open wound.
The fangs of this
rattlesnake are so long
they must fold in order
for the snake to close
its mouth. Note the
position of the animal’s
venom glands.
 Movement
• The reptilian muscle and skeletal systems
exhibit many advances over those of
amphibians
• Reptiles with legs have larger, stronger limbs
whose movements are well-controlled
• Snakes, which lost their legs in the course of
evolution, move by pressing large ventral
scales against the ground
 Tiny flaps of skin on its toes
enable this gecko to cling to
surfaces as smooth as glass.

The sidewinder, a type of

rattlesnake, is able to move
along shifting desert sands
quite quickly.
 Reproduction
• Reptiles lay eggs that hatch into animals that
resemble small adults
• Virtually all reptiles reproduce through
internal fertilization, which means that a male
deposits sperm into the body of the female
• From the outside, it is extremely difficult to tell
the sex of a reptile
• Most reptiles provide minimal care for their
young
 Tuataras
• The tuatara is the only surviving member of the order
Rhynchocephalia
• Resembles reptiles that lived during the dinosaur age
• Tuataras are found only on a few small islands off
the coast of New Zealand
• They are active at night
• They have a pineal gland that contains cells that are
sensitive to light
• They use it to detect changes in day length
 Lizards and Snakes
• Order Squamata
• Most lizards have legs, clawed toes, external ears, and
moveable eyelids
• Some have evolved into highly specialized forms
• The monitors are the only reptiles alive today that
provide some idea of what small dinosaurs may have
been like
– Quite intelligent and active
– Eat birds and mammals
– Largest are the Komodo dragons
This male anole is displaying the bright
red patch below its chin. The Komodo
dragon is one of the largest lizards in
the world, reaching a length of about 3
meters. The frilled dragon gets its
name from a frill of skin around its
neck that can extend, thus making itself
appear larger and more fearsome to
other animals.
 Lizards and Snakes
• Snakes are lizards that have lost both pairs of legs during their
evolution
• Although being legless may seem to be a disadvantage,
snakes are efficient and effective predators in the niches they
occupy
• The distribution of snakes on Earth is limited only by
temperature
• Snakes vary in size
• The ability of certain types of snakes to produce lethal
poisons has caused people to fear snakes
– More people in the US die from bee stings than snake bites
 Crocodilians
• Order Crocodilia
• Alligators, crocodiles, caimans, and gavials
• Crocodilians are among the largest living reptiles
– Can grow up to 7m in length
• Live only in the tropics and subtropics, where the
climate is warm year round
• Alligators and caimans live only in freshwater and are
found in the Western Hemisphere
• Crocodiles may live in either fresh or salt water and
are native to Africa, India, and Southeast Asia
 Turtles
• Order Chelonia
• Turtles live in water
• Tortoises live on land
• All have some sort of shell covering their body
• The shell consists of two parts: a dorsal part, or
carapace, and a ventral part, or plastron
• The animal’s backbone is fused to the inside of
the carapace, and its head, legs, and tail stick out
through holes where carapace and plastron join
 Turtles
• Tortoises usually have a high, domed carapace
and stubby, elephant-like legs
• Tortoises pull into their shells to protect their
more delicate body parts
• In some species,the front end of the plastron is
hinged and folds up to further seal out
predators
 Turtles
• Turtles are adapted to freshwater ponds and
lakes or the open sea
• The legs and feet of many aquatic turtles have
developed into flippers
• Certain aquatic species cannot pull back into
their shell completely, but they do have
powerful jaws that are capable of biting if
attacked
 How Reptiles Fit into the World
• Reptiles are important predators in many
ecosystems
• Sea turtles are now in danger of extinction
– Turtle soup and turtle eggs
– Used to manufacture jewelry
– Destruction of nesting sites
Chapter 32: Reptiles and Birds

Section 2:
The Evolution of Temperature
Control
 The Evolution of Temperature
Control
• Control of body temperature is important
for animals, particularly in habitats where
temperature varies widely with time of day
and with season
• Each animal species has its own preferred
“operating range” of temperatures
• In terms of how they generate and control their
body heat, animals can be classified into two
basic groups: ectotherms and endotherms
 The Evolution of Temperature
Control
• Turtles, snakes, and other modern reptiles are
ectotherms, which literally means heat from outside
• These animals have low metabolic rates when they
are resting
• They do not generate much heat inside their bodies
• Any heat they do generate is lost to their
surroundings
• These animals must pick up heat from the
environment
 The Evolution of Temperature
Control
• Birds and mammals are endotherms, which literally
means heat from inside
• Birds and mammals have relatively high metabolic
rates that generate a significant amount of heat,
even when they are resting
• Body fat and either hair or feathers insulate the
body, helping to retain that heat so that it is not lost
to the environment
• Endotherms can move around at night more easily
than ectotherms can
 The Evolution of Temperature
Control
• In nature, lizards and snakes warm up when
they need to by basking in the sun
• When their body reaches the right temperature,
they go about their business
• If they get too hot during the day, reptiles duck
into a cool burrow or under a rock to lose heat
• Neither endothermy nor ectothermy is superior
• Each strategy has its advantages and
disadvantages
 The Evolution of Temperature
Control
• Ectotherms cannot remain active for long
periods
• Endotherms remain active for a long time
• In climates that remain warm all the time,
ectothermy is a way of conserving energy
• Endotherms burn lots of calories to generate
body heat
Chapter 32: Reptiles and Birds

Section 3: Birds
 Birds
• About 8700 living species belonging to more
than 160 families
• There were even more kinds of birds in the
past
• Paleontologists estimate that more than
100,000 species of birds have become extinct
since the Jurassic period
 What Is a Bird?
• Birds are endothermic reptile-like animals
with an outer covering of feathers, two legs
used for walking or perching, and front limbs
modified into wings that usually do not have
useful claws
• The single most important feature that
distinguishes birds from reptiles is feathers
• Feathers help birds fly and also keep them warm
• Birds have several different kinds of feathers
 What Is a Bird?
• Contour feathers are large feathers that cover a bird’s body
and wings
– Used for flight
– Contain barbs and barbules
– Preening
• Down feathers grow underneath and between the contour
feathers
– Short, soft, and fluffy
– Trap warm air close to a bird’s body
• Powder feathers are important to birds that live on or in water
– Repels water
Baby owls are covered with a
coat of down feathers. The air
spaces in these fluffy feathers
help insulate the birds from
temperature changes. Most of
the down feathers will later be
shed and a new coat of
contour feathers will grow in.
 Evolution of Birds
• The first fossil ever found of an early birdlike
animal is called Archaeopteryx and dates from late
in the Jurassic Period
• Its skeleton looks much like a small running
dinosaur
• Had teeth in its beak
• Had toes and claws on its wings
• There is much controversy over which fossils are
those of birds and when birds first appeared on Earth
Archaeopteryx, which
lived about 147
million years ago, is
the oldest fossil that
has been confirmed to
be that of a bird.
 Form and Function in Birds
• Many characteristic features of birds differ
dramatically among species adapted to
different ways of life
– Feathers, wings, bones, beaks, and legs
• It is important to study birds that live in
different habitats and examine the adaptations
they show
The huge talons of this soaring eagle help the
bird catch fish. Woodpeckers hear insects
chewing beneath the bark of a tree. The beak of
the woodpecker is strong enough to pierce the
bark, revealing the bug beneath it. The
featherless head of this vulture gives the bird a
sinister look, but a lack of head feathers serves a
useful function: A featherless head is easy to
keep clean. Because vultures often put their
head into the carcass of dead animals,
cleanliness is important.
 Feeding
• Birds have high metabolic rates and burn many
calories just to keep warm
• For that reason, birds need to eat large amounts
of food
• The digestive system of birds shows
specializations for carnivorous and herbivorous
diets
 Feeding
• Many birds have organs called crop and gizzard
• The crop is an enlarged area of the esophagus, where
food can be stored and moistened before it enters the
stomach
• The gizzard is a muscular part of the stomach that
often contains small bits of gravel swallowed by a
bird
– Grinds the gravel and food together
• Crushes food particles and makes them easier
to digest
 Respiration
• Extremely efficient in taking in oxygen and
eliminating carbon dioxide
• Bird lungs are connected at both the
anterior and posterior to large air sacs in
the body cavity and bones
• When a bird inhales, air travels through
passageways that lead into the lungs
 Respiration
• Some stays in the lungs, however, most
goes into the posterior air sacs
• When a bird exhales, air from the posterior
air sacs passes into the lungs for gas
exchange
• Birds are able to remove oxygen from air
when they inhale as well as when they
exhale
 Internal Transport
• Four-chambered heart and two separate circulatory
loops
• One half of the heart receives oxygen-poor blood
from the body and pumps this blood to the lungs
• Oxygen-rich blood returns to the other side of the
heart to be pumped throughout the rest of the body
• This system ensures that oxygen collected by the
lungs is distributed with maximum efficiency
• A bird’s heart beats quickly
– From 150 to more than 1000 beats per minute
 Excretion
• Eliminate nitrogenous waste by filtering them from the
blood in the kidneys
• Urine flows to the cloaca through the ureters
• Most water is reabsorbed in the cloaca, leaving uric
acid crystals in a white paste like form
– “bird droppings”
• Bird species that are surrounded by sea water have
special salt glands near their eyes
– Work like an extra pair of kidneys, except they
specialize in secreting salt
 Response
• Birds are quite intelligent
• Cerebrum controls behaviors such as flying,
nest building, care of young, courtship, and
mating
• Cerebellum and medulla are much like those of
reptiles
• Extraordinary well-developed eyes because of
large optic lobes in the brain
 Response
• The senses of taste and smell are not well
developed
– Small olfactory lobes
• Lack external ears
• Some use a magnetic sense to navigate
– Operates like a built-in compass, responding
to Earth’s magnetic field
The huge forward-facing eyes of an owl help this
great bird hunt at night. Its eyes are able to spot a tiny
mouse foraging among the leaves on the dark floor of
a forest.
 Movement
• Travel through different environments with
wings, bodies, legs, and feet adapted for
various types of locomotion
• Many variations in bird wings, depending on
whether the animals soar like eagles, flap their
wings steadily like robins, or hover in place
like hummingbirds
 Movement
• Bones are hollow so that the weight carried in fight
is less
• Large chest muscles that attach directly to the
sternum
• Many birds use their flying ability to migrate
between summer breeding grounds in the North and
winter resting grounds in the South or the tropics
• A number of birds have lost their ability to fly
– Ostriches and penguins
 Reproduction
• Similar to that of reptiles
• Reproductive tracts open to the cloaca
• Male birds have no external reproductive organs
• Instead, mating birds press the lips of their
cloacas close together to transfer sperm from
male to female
• Most birds incubate their eggs until they hatch
• The time between laying and hatching varies
among species from 13 days to more than 50 days
 Reproduction
• When a chick is ready to hatch, it uses a small egg
tooth on its bill to make a hole in the shell
• Some birds are able to take care of themselves as soon
as they hatch
• Other newly hatched birds are blind and totally
helpless when they hatch
• Birds have fascinating courtship and mating behaviors
• Some species mate for life
• Other pair up only briefly to mate
 How Birds Fit into the World
• Serve as pollinators for a number of plants
• Eat extraordinary numbers of insects
• Down feathers are good insulators
• Favorite foods around the world
• Raising them is part of the economy in many
countries
 How Birds Fit into the World
• Healthful source of protein
• Because domestic strains of chickens and
turkeys do not fly, their chest muscles are
seldom used, making this part of the bird the
juicy and tender “white meat”
• The leg and thigh muscles of these birds, used
constantly for walking and running, are the
“dark meat”