Chapter II Aggregates

Aggregate
Is a rocklike material of various sizes and shapes
used in the manufacture of Portland cement
concrete, bituminous concrete, plaster, grout, filter
beds, railroad ballast, base coarse, foundation fill
or subgrade, and so on.
ASTM(C125 & D8) defines aggregate as a
granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed
stone, or iron-blast-furnace slag used with a
cementing medium to form mortar or concrete, or
alone as in base coarse or railroad ballast.
Aggregates are divided into two
groups:
1. Fineaggregate (also called sand) –
consists of natural or manufactured
particles ranging in size from 0.006 in.
to 3/16 in.
 In concrete construction, fine
aggregate is defined as aggregate with
predominant particles of size smaller
than 3/16 in. and larger than 0.0029 in.
2. Coarse aggregate – consists of rounded river
gravel, crushed stone, and manufactured
aggregate of size larger than 3/16 in.
Gravel – is naturally rounded aggregate larger
than ¼ in..
Crushed gravel – is a fine aggregate made by
crushing the gravel.
The size limit that separates a course from a fine
aggregate is also dependent on the type of
construction for which the aggregate is used. For
example, aggregate larger than 1/32 in. is
sometimes defined as coarse aggregate for use
in asphaltic concrete construction.
 When natural sand and gravel are not
available, crushed stone or rock, which is a
product resulting from quarrying and
processing natural rock, is used as fine and/
or coarse aggregate. This type of aggregate
is called manufactured mineral aggregate.
Manufactured sand – is produced by
crushing stone, gravel, or air-cooled blast
furnace slag, and is characterized by sharp,
angular particles.
Raw materials for the production of
manufactured coarse aggregate
Rock
Boulder
Similar materials
They are characterized by a rough surface texture.
Rounded gravel has a very smooth texture.
Sand, gravel, and manufactured mineral aggregate,
is also known collectively as natural mineral
aggregate.
Rocks used in the manufacture of aggregate
particles
1. Granite – is hard, tough, and dense. (sp. gr.= 2.6
– 2.7). High compressive strength = 13 – 34 ksi.
2. Sandstone and 3. limestone – range from hard
to soft, heavy to light, and dense to porous. (sp gr
= 2.0 – 2.6). They contain clay which renders
these particles soft, friable, and absorptive.
 Crushing strength of less than 14 ksi may be
unsuitable for the manufacture of concrete. High
compressive strength = 13-34 ksi.
Aggregate can also be manufactured by
 Crushing waste portland cement concrete
 Clay bricks
These products can be an economical alternative
when good-quality mineral aggregate is scarce.
However, natural sand, and gravel are by far the
most common types of aggregate in construction
and are used whenever they are of satisfactory
quality and can be obtained economically in
sufficient quantity.
 Lightweight, Normal
weight, and Heavyweight
aggregates
 Aggregates are divided into
three types (based on sp gr)
1. Lightweight aggregates
2. Normal weight
aggregates
3. Heavy weight aggregates
Specific gravity – the ratio of the mass of a unit
volume of a material at a specific temperature to
the mass of the same volume of gas-free distilled
water at that temperature.
Most natural mineral aggregates have specific
gravities = 2.4-2.9, bulk densities = 95-105pcf,
and fall into the normal weight categories.
Bulk density(also called specific weight) – the
mass of a unit volume of an aggregate at a
specified temperature and has the units of grams
per milliliter, grams per cubic meter, pounds per
cubic foot, or others. The unit volume is based
on the volume occupied by the particles and the
voids between them.
1. Lightweight aggregates – (any aggregate
with bulk density<70pcf is used as raw material
in the manufacture of lightweight concrete.
It is also used in the production of lightweight
masonry blocks to improve thermal, insulating,
and nailing characteristics of these building
materials.
Two types of lightweight aggregate
a.) Natural lightweight aggregate – consists of
particles derived from natural rocks, primarily
those of volcanic origin.
b.) Manufactured lightweight aggregate –
is produced by expanding some raw
materials in a rotary kiln, on a sintering
grate, or by mixing them with water.
The most common lightweight aggregates
are:
A. Pumice (volcanic glass) – the most
widely used natural lightweight
aggregate, is usually whitish gray to
yellow in color but may also be brown,
red, or black. It is found in large quantities
in volcanic areas of the Western United
States and is porous in structure.
 It can be identified as a finely vesicular
glassy rock containing tubular bubbles.
Average bulk density = 30pcf.
B. Scoria – which is also of volcanic origin,
resembles industrial cinders and is usually
red to black in colors (cinders are residues
from high temperature combustion of coal
in industrial furnaces.) The pores in scoria
are larger than those of pumice and more
or less spherical in shape.
 C. Expanded shale-}belong in the
manufactured lightweight
D. Expanded clay- }aggregate category
and are produced by
E. Expanded slate- }crushing the raw
materials and heating
them to the fusion point (approx. 2460°F,
when they become soft and expand up to
600-700% of original volume) because of
entrapped gases. Average bulk density =
50pcf.
They are also produced by sintering, a
process in which a mixture of raw
materials, including coal and ashes, in
moving grates is exposed to flames under
forced draft. The resulting product is then
crushed to the sizes desired.
F. Expanded perlite (used in the
manufacture of insulating concrete) – is
an aggregate derived from crushing
perlite ore and then expanding the
resulting particles in a kiln by driving
the water out. It is used to replace
natural sand in lightweight concrete
manufacture and has very good
insulating properties. Concrete made
with this aggregate has limited
strength as well as high shrinkage.
Perlite is also used in the manufacture
of cement mortar. Average bulk
density = 15pcf.
G. Expanded slag – is produced by
expanding blast furnace slag [blast
furnace slag – is a nonmetallic
product consisting essentially of
silicates and aluminates of calcium
(lime) and other bases that is
developed in a molten condition
simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace] mixed with water while still
molten.
 The violent reaction between the molten
slag and the water creates aggregate
particles that are porous in structure.
They are hard and possess considerable
strength, but their use in structural
concrete is limited because of their high
sulfur content.
H. Vermiculite – used in the manufacture of
lightweight concrete . It is produced by
heating the raw material until it expands up
to 20 times its original volume.
It is too soft and weak a material to be
used in concrete that requires
strength, but is used in plaster as a
replacement for sand. Bulk density =
4-12pcf, which is nearly the same as
that of perlite. Concrete made with
vermiculite or perlite has low
compressive strength and high
shrinkage but excellent insulating
properties.
Some lightweight aggregates are also used
to manufacture nailable concrete.
Most commonly used aggregates in the
production of this type of concrete:
sawdust, expanded slag, pumice, and
scoria.
Sawdust concrete – is used for floor
finishes and in the manufacture of precast
floor tiles, made with a 1:3 mix of cement
and sawdust by volume and enough water.
to produce good workability may be
expected to have a density of
55pcf and compressive strength
of as high as 700psi, which can
be increased by increasing the
cement content.
 2. Normal weight aggregates
Gravel, crushed granite, and ordinary sand are all normal
weight aggregates.
Commonly used in the manufacture of normal weight
concrete, asphalt concrete, and roadway subbase.
Sp gr for sand and granite = 2.6 and 2.65 respectively.
ASTM Standards (C778)- identify a special type of sand
called standard sand – is a silica sand composed
entirely of naturally rounded grains of nearly pure quartz
quarried from Ottawa Illinois or LeSueus , Minnesota.
 Standard sand comes in two grades:
20 – 30 sand – predominantly graded to
pass a No. 20 sieve and to be retained on
a No. 30 sieve
Graded sand – is predominantly graded
between No. 30 sieve and No. 100 sieve.
Slurry-seal sand – is a fine crushed sand
that is mixed with liquid asphalt and
applied in a thickness of 1/8 in. to fill
cracks and irregularities in old asphalt
concrete pavements.
 Seal-coat aggregate – is an aggregate
featuring very small crushed rock particles
that are mixed with liquid asphalt and
applied over aggregate base and to
resurface asphalt concrete or portland
cement concrete.
 3. Heavy weight aggregates
Is an aggregate of high density that is used
primarily to manufacture heavy weight
concrete for protection against nuclear
radiation.
Varies in unit weight from 150pcf (using
normal-weight aggregates) to 400pcf
(containing steel punching as coarse and
fine aggregates)
Materials used for the manufacture of heavy
weight concrete:
 Mineral ore – some iron ores, such as
limonite and magnetite, are used as fine
and coarse aggregates after processing.
Sp gr = 4.1 – 5.2; average bulk density =
180pcf, and are used to produce concrete
of unit weight =210 – 260pcf.
Manufactured iron products – are used
to make extra –heavy weight concrete (of
density around 300pcf).
 Barite (also called heavy spar) – is
a quarry rock with a high barium
sulfate content (90 to 95%), a small
percentage of iron oxide, and some
crystalline rocks. Sp gr = 4 – 4.6;
average bulk density = 150 pcf.
Steel punching, steel bars, and steel
shot have sp gr between 6.2 – 7.7
and may be more expensive than
natural heavy weight aggregate.
 PROPERTIES OF
AGGREGATES
A number of physical and mechanical
properties affects construction products
manufactured using aggregates;
 Durability
 Strength
 Performance
When using materials such as cement
and asphalt , aggregate particles
should retain their
Strength
 Shape
Texture
The most important properties to
consider in selecting an aggregate for
a particular applications:
Specific gravity
  Bulk density
 Porosity
 Voids
 Absorption
 Modulus of elasticity
 Moisture content
 Shrinkage
Gradation and fineness modulus
 Chemical reactivity
 Compressive strength
Aggregates: Types and
Specific gravity
Aggregate Type Average specific
gravity
Granite Normal weight, 2.65
mineral
Gravel Normal weight 2.70

Limestone Normal weight, 2.65

mineral
Perlite Lightweight, 2.50
natural
Pumice Lightweight, 0.75
natural
Quartzite Normal weight, 2.69
mineral
 Scoria Lightweight, 0.75
natural
Expanded shale, Lightweight, 1.0
clay, and slate manufactured
Sawdust Lightweight, 0.5
organic
Expanded Lightweight, 0.2
vermiculite manufactured
Expanded perlite Lightweight, 0.75
manufactured
Sand Normal weight 2.60

Barite Heavyweight 4.50

 Specific Gravity and Moisture
Content
The weight of aggregate particles depends on the
moisture level. As a result, the specific gravity
readings should be associated with the moisture
level or moisture content measurement.
Two types of moisture measurement in aggregate
particles:
a.) absorbed moisture or water absorption – is
the weight of water absorbed by dry aggregate
particles in reaching the saturated surface dry
condition. Usually expressed as a percentage of
dry weight.
In this state there is no water on the surface
of the particle, but all the pores are filled
with water.
Moisture may also be retained in the
particles as chemically bound to the atomic
structure.
Absorption – the increase in weight of
aggregate due to water in the pores but not
including water adhering to the outside
surface of the particle. Is commonly
expressed as a percent of the weight of dry
aggregate.
Granite – has a very low absorption value (<
1%).
Porous sandstone – has a very high
absorption value (as high as 13%).
Lightweight aggregate – has a high
absorption value, generally in the range 5 –
20%.
b.) Surface moisture – moisture that is in
excess of absorbed moisture.
Total moisture content (MC) – is found by
determining the loss in weight representative
1000-g sample of sand or 2000-g of coarse
aggregate after it has been dried to a constant weight.
Free moisture or surface moisture – is obtained as
total moisture minus absorbed moisture(saturated
surface dry condition).

Equations to determine moisture content, absorption,

and surface moisture

original sample wt – oven-dry wt

Total MC = -------------------------------------------------
oven-dry weight
 saturated surface dry wt -
oven-dry wt
Absorption = ------------------------------------------
oven-dry weight

Surface MC = total MC – absorption

Surface moisture in sand can cause
considerable bulking.
Bulking – is the increase in volume over dry-
rodded sand volume caused by pulling apart
of the particles due to surface tension.
 The percent increase in volume, or bulking,
depends on the moisture content and the size
of aggregate particles.
Fine sand – about 35 % bulking
Coarse sand – about 15%
Moisture content that causes max. bulking is
around 5%.
Moisture condition of aggregate is divided into
four state
1.) Oven dry condition – is obtained when all
the moisture is driven out of the pores by
drying the aggregate to a constant weight.
 at a temperature of about 110°C.
2.) Air dry condition– the amount of
moisture in the particles is less than that for
the saturated surface dry condition but
more than that which remains in the oven-
dry condition.
3.) Saturated surface dry condition – the
state of moisture condition when all pores
in the particles are filled with water but no
moisture exists on the outside surface.
4.) Wet condition – exists when excess moisture
(free water or surface moisture)remains on the
surface of the particles, as in sand exposed to
rain water.
Bulk specific gravity (Bulk SG) – the ratio of the
weight in air of a unit volume of a permeable
material (including both permeable and non
permeable pores) at a specific temperature to
the weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free
distilled water at that temperature.
When the weight in air includes the weight of
water within the pores, the bulk specific gravity
is for saturated surface condition.
 Bulk specific gravity of aggregate is
commonly expressed for the saturated
surface dry condition. In the manufacture of
cement concrete and asphalt concrete it is the
bulk specific gravity that is of interest, and as
a result the term specific gravity is often used
instead of bulk specific gravity.
Apparent Specific Gravity (Apparent SG) –
the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of
a material at a specific temperature to the
weight in air of an equal volume of gas-free
distilled water at that temperature. It pertains
to the relative density of the
 solid material making up the constituent
particles without including the pore space
within the particles that is accessible to
water.

density of aggregate based on solid

+ pore volume
Bulk SG = ----------------------------------------------
density of water
 density of aggregate based on
solid + volume(w/out
permeable
voids)
Apparent SG = -----------------------------------------
density of water

When the density of aggregate is based on

saturated particles, specific gravity is said to be
at saturated surface dry condition. Similarly,
when the density is based on the weight of
oven-dry particles, the specific gravity is said to
be in oven-dry condition.
 Bulk Density and Voids
Unit weight or bulk density (also called dry rodded
weight and specific weight) –is the mass per unit
volume of aggregate.
The mass is determined in dry condition, and the
volume includes the volume of voids.
The unit weight is measured by filling a standard
container with the representative sample of the
aggregate and recording the weight of the material
in the container.
The volume measurement includes a volume of voids
between the particles.
For normal-weight aggregates, bulk density
ranges between 95 and 105 pcf. For light-
weight aggregates, it is between 10 and 70
pcf. Heavy-weight aggregates have bulk
density values exceeding 150 pcf.
The unit weight of an aggregate is needed in
designing concrete mix proportions.
Voids – represent the amount of air space in
the aggregate or space between the particles.
Void content – is generally expressed as a
percent of gross volume which is solid volume
plus volume of voids.
For any aggregate, void content can be
determined by knowing its specific gravity
and bulk density using the equation:

SG x W- B
Void (%) = ------------------ x 100
SG x W

Where:
SG = specific gravity
W= density of water
B = bulk density
 Void content
a.) Normal aggregates – between 30 and 50%
b.) Concrete mixes – should be low as possible
c.) In mixed aggregates, containing about 40%
sand and 60% gravel - can be as low as 25%
A good mixture of concrete has about 75% of its
volume occupied by mixed aggregates, and the
balance is made up of cement paste and air
voids.
Porosity – the ratio of the volume of the pores in
a particle to its total volume (solid volume plus
the pore volume).
 volume of pores
Porosity = ---------------------
total volume
Granite and limestone – 1% porosity
Majority of sandstones – 3% porosity
Few types of limestone and sandstone – 13%
and 30% respectively
The porosity of aggregate particle and the
character of the pores affect its freezing
characteristics.
A porous stone is less resistant to freezing than
is a stone of dense crystalline structure.
 Strength, water absorption, and
permeability of the aggregate are
affected by the porosity and thus affect
the behavior of both freshly mixed and
hardened concrete.
When concrete is used in cold climates,
its resistance to freezing and thawing is
important , as without it the concrete will
disintegrate.
Modulus of Elasticity
and Strength
Granite and limestone – modulus of elasticity
in compression is in 2x106 to 7 x 106 psi.
Sandstone – 1 x 106 to 5 x 106.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete
increases with increase in the modulus of
aggregate used in its manufacturer .
Creep and shrinkage of concrete are also
affected by the modulus of elasticity of the
aggregate.
Modulus of elasticity and deformation
characteristics of aggregates are seldom
considered in studying the suitability of a
type of aggregate for a particular use.
Compressive strengths of aggregates depends
on the compressive strengths of original
rocks.
Granites and limestone have high compressive
strengths , typically they have average low
compressive strength of 13000psi. Flexural
strength – 2200psi.
Sandstone and lightweight aggregates have
low compressive strength – 6000psi
Basalt has a very high compressive and
flexural strength
– 23000psi and 5000psi respectively.
The strength of an aggregate affects
the strength of the building material
made with it when the two strength
values are close to its other.
Generally, the compressive strength
of aggregate is much higher than
that of concrete made with the
aggregate.
 Gradation
(also called grain-size distribution) refers to the
proportion (by mass) of aggregate distributed in
specified particle-size ranges.
It is an important property that affects mix
proportions, workability, economy, porosity,
durability, and shrinkage of the finish product.
Grading – refers to the process that determines
the particle-size distribution of a representative
sample of the aggregate.
Blending - the process of combining aggregates
of various sizes to obtain a specified gradation.
A graded aggregate – is one that conforms to
the specified grading limits of the material
specifications.
A dense-graded aggregate – is one that has a
particle-size distribution such that when it is
compacted, the resulting voids between
aggregate particles, expressed as a
percentage of the total space occupied by the
material , are relatively small.
An open-graded aggregate – is one that has a
particle-size distribution such that when it is
compacted, the voids between the aggregate
particles, expressed as a percentage of the
total space occupied by the material, remain
relatively large.
 In designing a concrete mix a constant goal is to
achieve maximum density with minimum amount
of paste to attain the desired quality. A properly
graded aggregate is important in accomplishing
this goal.
Particle-size distribution of aggregate or the gradation
– will have an impact on the workability of the mix,
finish characteristics of concrete, quantity of cement
used, and cost, density, and strength of the product.
Gradation – is determined using sieve analysis in
which a representative sample of the aggregate is
passed through a series of sieves and the weight
retained in each sieve (expressed as a percent of the
same weight)is compared with the grading limits
required.
 Sieve
Is an apparatus with square
openings.
Some sieves are identified by their
opening sizes and the others by
numbers.
Standard coarse aggregate sieves are
No. 4, 3/8, ½, 1, 1 ½, 2, 2 ½ in.
Standard fine aggregate sieves are No.
100, #50, #30, #16, #8, and #4.
 Table 1.1 Normal Opening
Sieve designation
in mm in mm Type

2 50 2 50 H

1½ 37.5 1.5 37.5 F

1 25 1 25 H

¾ 19 0.75 19 F

½ 12.5 0.5 12.5 H

3/8 9.5 0.375 9.5 F

Sieve designation Normal Opening

in mm in mm Type

#4 4.75 0.187 4.75 F

#8 2.36 0.0937 2.36 F

#16 1.18 0.0469 1.18 F

#30 600µm 0.0234 0.60 F

#50 300µm 0.0117 0.30 F

#100 150µm 0.0059 0.15 F
#200 75µm 0.0030 0.075 F
The opening sizes of these sieves can be seen
from the table (previous) that the sieves are
arranged so that most sieves have openings
that are one-half the opening of the higher
sieve.
Sieve analysis or mechanical analysis
consists of determining the proportionate
amounts of particles retained on or passing
through a series of sieves of decreasing size.
Using percentages of weights retained in each
sieve, a plot is drawn called a particle-size
distribution curve.
 Table 1.2 Typical Standard Aggregates
Amounts finer than each sieve (%)
1 in ¾ in ½ in 3/8 in #4 #8 #16 #30 #50 #100
Norm
al size

Size of Aggregate for Road and Bridge Construction (ASTM D448)

1˝ to #4 95- 25-60 0-10 0-5
100
½ ˝to #4 90- 40-70 0-15 0-5
#4 to 0 100
85- 10-30
100

Size of Aggregate for Concrete (ASTM C33)

1˝ to #4 95- 25-60 0-10 0-5
100
½ ˝ to 90- 40-70 0-15 0-5
#4 100
Fine 95- 80- 50-85 25-60 10-30 2-10
Aggregat 100 100
e
Table 1.3 Grading Requirements for Various Types
of Sand
Percent Passi Sieve Numb
ng er

Type
of #4 #8 #16 #20 #30 #40 #50 #100
sand
20-30 100 85- 0-5
sand 100
Grade 100 96-100 65-75 20-30 0-4
d
Sand
Sand 95-100 80- 50-85 25-60 10-30 2-10
for 100
concre
te
 In addition to a graphical representation of grading
distribution the sieve analysis is used to determine
a factor called a fineness modulus.
Fineness modulus – is a number obtained by adding
the percentages of material in the sample that is
coarser than each of the following sieves and
dividing the sum by 100.
Fineness modulus is less informative but is useful in
measuring the average particle size of the sample.
The average size of the sample is found as the size
of the nth sieve counted from the last sieve in the
set.
A smaller number or smaller modulus indicates a
larger portion of finer particles (or fine sand) and a
higher number
indicates a larger portion of coarser particles
(or coarse sand).
Blend sand – a very fine aggregate with a
fineness modulus within the range 1.0 to
1.7. Is used in concrete to improve
workability, pumpability, and finishing
characteristics.
In concrete manufacture, fineness modulus
of sand may lie between 2.2 and 3.2. The
lower number shows fine sand and the
higher number displays coarser sand.
 Sample Problem
1. Sieve analysis of a 1000-g sample of fine
aggregate resulted in the following data. Find the
fineness modulus.
Sieve 4 8 16 30 50 100
Size

Weight 26 130 240 252 210 138

Retaine
d
 A few other properties that are useful in
determining the suitability of an aggregate for
use in roads and pavements.
Abrasion resistance – is the mechanical
wearing and scraping of rock surfaces by
friction or impact or both.
Wear resistance or hardness – is a measure
of a resistance of a material to deformation
or scratching.
Abrasion resistance in aggregate, is
important when used in concrete and other
products that are subject to abrasion, as in
heavy-duty floors or pavements.
Abrasion resistance is measured by the L.A Abrasion
Test (ASTM C131). This test “Test method for
resistance to degradation of small-size coarse
aggregates by abrasion and impact in Los Angeles
Machine,” (developed in 1916)is both an impact and
an abrasion test.