Yarmouk University

Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences

Public Administration Department

Research Methods
STEP II Conceptualizing a Research Design
This operational step includes two chapters:
Chapter 7: The research design
Chapter 8: Selecting a study design

Dr. Ali Rawabdeh (Associate Professor), Diploma, BS.c, MS.c, PhD

Public Administration Department

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 In this chapter you will learn about:
Chapter 7: The research  What research design means
design  The important functions of research design
 Issues to consider when designing your own research
 The theory of causality and the research design
  What procedures will you adopt to obtain answers to research
questions?
How you are going  How will you carry out the tasks needed to complete the different
components of the research process?
to conduct your  What should you do and what should you not do in the process of
study? undertaking the study?
 Basically, answers to these questions constitute the core of a
research design.
 A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation - answers to research questions or problems.
 A- The plan is the complete scheme or program of the
research.
 It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
What is a from writing the hypotheses and their operational
research implications to the final analysis of data.
 A detailed plan for how a research study is to be completed—operationalizing
design? variables so they can be measured, selecting a sample of interest to study,
collecting data to be used as a basis for testing hypotheses, and analyzing the
results.
 B- A research design is a procedural plan that is adopted
by the researcher to answer questions validly,
objectively, accurately and economically. (Control of
Variance).
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  A- Operational plan
 Name the study design per se – that is, ‘cross-sectional’, ‘before-and-after’,
‘comparative’, ‘control experiment’ or ‘random control’.
 Provide detailed information about the following aspects of the study:
 Who will constitute the study population?
 How will the study population be identified?
The functions  Will a sample or the whole population be selected?
of a research  If a sample is selected, how will it be contacted?
design  How will consent be sought?
 What method of data collection will be used and why?
 In the case of a questionnaire, where will the responses be returned?
 How should respondents contact you if they have queries?
 In the case of interviews, where will they be conducted?
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 How will ethical issues be taken care of?
B- procedures
undertaken
are adequate to  To ensure this, it is important that you
obtain valid, select a study design that helps you to
objective and isolate, eliminate or quantify the effects of
accurate different sets of variable influencing the
answers to the independent variable.
research
questions.

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  In the social sciences, extraneous variables operate in every study
and cannot be eliminated. However, they can be controlled to some
extent.
 The sole function of a control group is to quantify the impact of
extraneous variables on the dependent variable(s).
 Changes in the dependent variable, because of the respondent’s
state of mood or ambiguity in the research instrument, are called
random variables or chance variables.
 The error thus introduced is called the chance or random error. In
most cases the net effect of chance variables is considered to be
negligible as respondents who over-report tend to cancel out those
who underreport. The same applies to responses to ambiguous
questions in a research instrument.

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  The second function of the research design – ensuring that the
procedures undertaken are adequate to obtain valid, objective and
accurate answers to the research questions.
 select a study design that helps you to isolate, eliminate or quantify the
effects of different sets of variable influencing the independent variable .
.
The theory of  . FIGURE 7.1 Factors affecting the relationship between a counselling
causality and service and the extent of marital
the research  problems
design Independent Dependent Variable
. Study Extant of Marital
variables
 . Type of counselling Population Problems
. Extraneous Variables Aff
. Economic conditions ec
t
Employment status
. Pressures
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 Change in Change in Change in Change

In any causal dependent

variable
independent
variable
Extraneous
Variables
because of
chance
relationship,
changes in the
dependent Physical sciences
a researcher can control extraneous variables as
variable may be experiments are usually done in a laboratory

attributed to Since no researcher has control over extraneous variables,

their effect, as mentioned, in most situations cannot be
three types Social sciences minimized. The best option is to quantify their impact
of variable: through the use of a
control group, though the introduction of a control group
creates the problem of ensuring that the
extraneous variables have a similar effect on both control
and experimental groups
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There are two methods
used to ensure that
extraneous variables have a
similar effect on control and
experimental groups and
two methods for
eliminating extraneous
variables:
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 1. Ensure that extraneous variables have a similar
impact on control and experimental groups.
 (a) Randomization –
 (b) Matching –
 2. Eliminate extraneous variable(s).
 (a) Build the affecting variable into the design of the study
 (b) Eliminate the variable
 CHAPTER 8
Selecting a Study Design

 In this chapter you will learn about:

CHAPTER 8  The differences between quantitative and qualitative study designs
Selecting a Study  Common study designs in quantitative research and when to use them
Design  Common study design in qualitative research and when to use them
 The strengths and weaknesses of different study designs

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  There are many more study designs in quantitative
research than in qualitative research.
Differences  Quantitative study designs are specific, well
between structured, have been tested for their validity and
quantitative reliability, and can be explicitly defined and
and recognized.
qualitative  Study designs in qualitative research either do not have
study designs these attributes or have them to a lesser degree. They
are less specific and precise, and do not have the same
structural depth.

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  The main focus in qualitative research is to understand,
explain, explore, discover and clarify situations, feelings,
perceptions, attitudes, values, beliefs and experiences of a
group of people.
 The study designs are therefore often based on deductive
rather than inductive logic, are flexible and emergent in
A study design. nature, and are often non-linear and non-sequential in
their operationalization.
 The study designs mainly entail the selection of people
from whom the information, through an open frame of
enquiry, is explored and gathered.
 The parameters of the scope of a study, and information
gathering methods and processes, are often flexible and
evolving. (not as structured and sequential as quantitative ones)
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 Mixed Methods Qualitative research Quantitative research
Research Methods Methods Methods

• Sequential • Narratives • Experimental designs

•Concurrent •Phenomenology •Non- Experimental
•Transformative •Ethnographies designs, such as survey
•Grounded theory
•Case Studies

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  Studies can be classified by examining them from three different
perspectives:
 1. the number of contacts with the study population;
 a. cross-sectional studies;
 b. before-and-after studies;
 c. longitudinal studies.

 2. the reference period of the study;

 a. retrospective;
 b. prospective;

Study designs  c. retrospective–prospective.

 3. the nature of the investigation.

in quantitative  a. experimental;

research  b. non-experimental;
 c. quasi- or semi-experimental .

 4- Other designs commonly used in quantitative research

 The cross-over comparative experimental design
 The replicated cross-sectional design
 Trend studies
 Cohort studies
 Panel studies
 Blind studies
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  The cross-over comparative experimental design

Other designs  The replicated cross-sectional design

 Trend studies
commonly  Cohort studies
used in  Panel studies
quantitative  Blind studies
research  Double-blind studies

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  1- Case Study: though dominantly a qualitative study design
 It is also prevalent in quantitative research. A case could be an individual, a
group, a community, an instance, an episode, an event, a subgroup of a population,
a town or a city.
 To be called a case study it is important to treat the total study population as one
entity.

Study designs  Very flexible and open-ended technique of data collection and analysis’.
 ‘In a case study the focus of attention is the case in its characteristic complexity,
in qualitative not on the whole population of cases.’ In selecting a case therefore you usually use
purposive, judgmental or information-oriented sampling techniques.
research:  This design is of huge relevance when the focus of a study is on extensively
exploring and understanding rather than confirming and quantifying.
 In this design your attempt is not to select a random sample but a case that can
provide you with as much information as possible to understand the case in its
totality.
 the use of multiple methods to collect data is an important aspect of a case study,
namely in-depth interviewing, obtaining information from secondary records,
gathering data through observations, collecting information through focus groups
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  2. Oral history:
 It is more a method of data collection than a study design.
 It has become an approach to study perceptions, experiences and
accounts of an event or gathering historical knowledge as viewed
by individuals.
 It is a picture of something in someone’s own words.
2. Oral history:  Oral history is a process of obtaining, recording, presenting and
interpreting historical or current information, based upon personal
experiences and opinions of some members of a study group or
unit.
 In terms of research design, it is quite simple. You first decide what
types of account, experience, perception or historical event you
want to find out about. identify the individuals or sources that can
best provide you with the needed information, then collect
information from them to be analyzed and interpreted.
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  3- Focus groups/group interviews
 Focus groups are a form of strategy in qualitative research in which attitudes,
opinions or perceptions towards an issue, product, service or program are explored
through a free and open discussion between members of a group and the researcher.
 Both focus groups and group interviews are facilitated group discussions in which a
researcher raises issues or asks questions that stimulate discussion among members of
the group.
 Focus groups are also prevalent in formative and summative evaluations and for
developing social programs and services.
3- Focus  It is also a useful tool in social and urban planning for identifying issues, options,
groups/group development strategies, and future planning and development directions.
interviews  In the formation of a focus group the size of the group is an important consideration.
(neither too large nor too small (optimal # is 8-10)).
 Also need to decide, in consultation with the group, the process of recording the
discussion. (fixed time)
 The main difference between a focus group and a group interview is in the degree of
specificity with respect to the issues to be discussed.
 The issues discussed in focus groups are more specific and focused than in group
interviews and they are largely predetermined by the researcher. In a group interview
you let the group members discuss whatever they want. (you the researcher will
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control over).
 This is usually done by developing a close interaction with members of a
group or ‘living’ in the situation which is being studied.
It is also used in quantitative research, depending upon how the
information has been generated and recorded.
 In qualitative research, an observation is always recorded in a descriptive
format whereas in quantitative research it is recorded either in categories
4- Participant or on a scale. It can also be a combination of both.
observation Information can also be collected through other methods such as informal
interviewing, in-depth interviewing, group discussions, previous
documents, oral histories.
Use of multiple methods will enhance the richness of the information
collected by participant observation.

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  The holistic approach to research is once again more a
philosophy than a study design.

5- Holistic
research  To understand a situation or phenomenon you need to
look at it in its totality – that is, holistically from every
perspective.

 You can use any design when exploring a situation from

different perspectives and the use of multiple methods is
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prevalent and desirable.
  Community discussion forums are designed to find
opinions, attitudes and/or ideas of a community with
regard to community issues and problems.

6- Community such as
discussion  developing town planning options
forums  community health programs for a community,
 seeking participation of its members in resolving issues relating to
traffic management,
 infrastructure development and determining future directions for the
area, informing communities of new initiatives.

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  Basically, this design entails keeping a reflective
journal log of your thoughts as a researcher
whenever you notice anything, talk to someone,
participate in an activity or observe something that
7- Reflective helps you understand or add to whatever you are
journal log trying to find out about.
 It could be the only method of data collection or it
can be used in combination with other methods
such as interviewing, group interviews, or
secondary sources.

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  Action research: comprises two components: action and
research .
 Research is a means to action, either to improve your practice or to
take action to deal with a problem or an issue.
 Since action research is guided by the desire to take action, strictly
8- Other commonly used speaking it is not a design per se. Most action research is
philosophy-guided concerned with improving the quality of service.
designs
 Feminist research:
 Participatory and collaborative research
enquiry

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