Lesson#01

Theory of Sets
Reference:
Chapter 02
Sanchetti & Kapoor (S&K)
Contents
• SET
• ELEMENTS OF A SET
• METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET
• TYPES OF SETS
• VENN DIAGRAMS
• OPERATIONS ON SETS

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SET
• A collection of well-defined and well-distinguished
objects.
• For example, possible outcomes in the toss of a die.

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ELEMENTS OF A SET
• Elements
  or members
• Set indicated by capital letter like A, B or X, Y
• Elements indicated by lower case letter like a, b or x, y
• Greek symbol capital epsilon “” means “belongs to a
set”
• For example, if x is the member of a set A,
symbolically: x A
• On the contrary, x A

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METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET

•• Two
  approaches:
• Tabular, Roster or Enumeration method –
• To list the elements
• For example, a set of odd numbers: N = {1, 3, 5,…}
• Useful when elements are few.
• Selector, Property builder or Rule method
• To indicate the nature or characteristics and the limits of
elements
• A = {x x is an odd number}
• denotes ‘such that’ or : can be used as well.
• Useful when elements are numerous.
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TYPES OF SETS
• Finite sets
• The sets having a finite/countable number of members.
• For example,
• A set of odd numbers smaller that 10, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
• Infinite sets
• The sets having a uncountable number of members.
• For example,
• A set of odd numbers: N = {1, 3, 5,…}
• Unit sets
• Containing only one element.
• Also known as (AKA) ‘singleton’
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
• Empty
  sets
• No members
• Symbol for empty sets ‘’ (phi)
• For example,
• The set of people who have travelled from the earth to the sun.
• AKA null or void set
• Equal sets
• A = B if {x A and x B}
• For example,
• Let A = {3, 5, 5, 9} and B = {9, 5, 3}
• A=B?
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•• Empty
  sets
• No members
• Symbol for empty sets ‘’
• For example,
• The set of people who have travelled from the earth to the sun.
• AKA null or void set
• Equal sets
• A = B if {x A and x B}
• For example,
• Let A = {3, 5, 5, 9} and B = {9, 5, 3}
• A=B?
• Order or repetition of elements does not matter
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
• Equivalent
  sets
• One to one correspondence with the elements
• Symbol for equivalent sets ‘’
• For example,
• A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• One to one correspondence:

• A B
• Total number of elements in one set = The total number of
elements in another set
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
QUICK ASSESSMENT

• X = (a, b, c, d, e), Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Z = {c, a, a,

e, d, b, b, c, d}
• Equality vs. Equivalency
• Give your verdict.

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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•  QUICK ASSESSMENT

• X = (a, b, c, d, e), Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Z = {c, a, a,

e, d, b, b, c, d}

• X = Z while X Y are equivalent sets

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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
• Subsets
 
• Every element of set A is also an element of set B
• But the reverse is not necessarily true
• Symbol for subsets ‘’
• For example,
• A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• A B
• Now, what about this one?
• B A
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•  Subsets
• Every element of a set A is also an element of a set B
• But the reverse is not necessarily true
• Symbol for subsets ‘’
• For example,
• A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• A B
• Now, what about this one?
• B A
• B is a SUPERSET of A
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•  Proper Subsets
• If set A is a subset of set B and is not equal to B, then we
call A a proper subset of B
• Symbol for proper subsets ‘’
• For example,
• A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
• A B or A B and A B
• If X = {3, 4, 5} and Y = {3, 4, 5}
• X Y or X Y and X = Y
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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•  Family of Sets
• All the elements of a set are sets themselves.
• AKA ‘set of sets‘
• For example,
• If A = {a, b} then
• X = [, {a}, {b}, {a, b}] is a family of sets whole
elements are subsets of the set A

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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
•  Power Set
• From a set containing n elements, subsets can be
formed.
• The set consisting of these subsets is called a power
set.
• For example,
• If A = {a, b}, then its = 4 subsets are , {a}, {b}, {a, b}
• So, P(S) = [, {a}, {b}, {a, b}]

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TYPES OF SETS (contd.)
• Universal Set
• For example,
• A set of Chartered Accountants in India may be
considered as a universal set for a set of Fellows or
Associates of CAs.
• When analyzing some particular situation we are never
required to go beyond some particular well-defined
limits.
• Denoted by the symbol `U'.

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Venn Diagrams
• English logician John Venn (1834-1923)
• To present pictorial representation.
• The universal set U is denoted by a region enclosed by a
rectangle.
• One or more sets A, B, C are shown through circles within
these rectangles.
• Usefulness to illustrate
• Set relations such as the subset and the set operations such
as intersection, union, complementation, etc. by using
regions in a plane to indicate sets
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OPERATIONS ON SETS
••  Intersection of sets
• The sets consisting of all elements which belong to
both sets.
• Denoted by ‘’ known as ‘cap’

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)

• Intersection of sets

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
•  The important properties of intersection are:
i. A B is the subset of both the set A and the set
B. Symbolically (A B) A and (A B) B
ii. Intersection of any set with an empty set is the
null set. Symbolically A = for every set A
iii. Intersection of a set with itself is the set itself.
Symbolically A A = A for every set A
iv. Intersection has commutative property, i.e.,
AB = BA
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OPERATIONS ON SETS
•  The important properties of intersection are:
v. Intersection has associative property. For any
three sets A, B and C
(A B) C = A (B C)
vi. If B A then A B = B and
if A B then A B = A
vii. If A B and B C then A (B C)

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OPERATIONS ON SETS
••  Union of sets
• The sets consisting of all elements which belong to
either one set or both.
• Denoted by ‘’ known as ‘union’

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OPERATIONS ON SETS
• The
  important properties of union are:
i. The individual sets composing a union are members of
the union. In other words
A (A B) and B (A B)
ii. It has an identity property in an empty set. Therefore,
A = A, for every set A
iii. Union of a set with itself is the set itself, i.e.,
A A = A, for every set A
iv. It has a commutative property, i.e., for any two sets A
and B A B = B A
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OPERATIONS ON SETS
•  The important properties of union are:
v. It has a associative property, i.e., for any two
sets A, B and C
(A B) C = A (B C)
vi. If B A, then A B = A and
if A B, then A B = B
vii. A B = A = B =

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
•  Distribution Laws of Union:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
•  Distribution Laws of Union:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

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 OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
• Distribution Laws of Union:

  A (B C)

  (A B) (A C)

 
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
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 OPERATIONS ON
SETS (contd.)

•  • Distribution Laws of
Intersections:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

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 OPERATIONS ON
SETS (contd.)

•  Distribution Laws of
Intersections:
• A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

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OPERATIONS
ON SETS
(contd.)

•• Distribution
  Laws of Intersections:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
•  Complement of a Set
• The set of all those elements which do not belong
to that set.
• If U = universal set and A = any set, then the
complement of set A is the set U – A
• Denoted as = =
• = U – A = {x: x U, x A} = {x: x A}

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OPERATIONS ON SETS (contd.)
• The
  important properties of complementation are:
i. The intersection of A and its complement is a null
set. A =
ii. The union of A and its complement is the universal
set. A = U
iii. The complement of universal set is null set and the
complement of empty set is universal set.
= and = U
iv. The complement of the complement of a set is the
set itself. = A
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 De-Morgan’s
Laws
•i.   Complement of a
union is the
intersection of
complements. =

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 De-Morgan’s
Laws
•ii.  Complement of an
intersection is the
union of the
complements. =

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Difference of Two Sets
•  The difference of two sets A and B is the set of
all those elements which belong to A and not to
B.
• Dented by A – B or A B

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De-Morgan’s Law on Difference
of Sets
•  If A, B, C be any three sets, then
A – (B C) = (A – B) (A – C)

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De-Morgan’s Law on Difference
of Sets
•  If A, B, C be any three sets, then
A – (B C) = (A – B) (A – C)

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Ordered Pair
• Two elements a and b written in parentheses (a, b)
such that a is the first member and b is the second
number.
• For example,
• The numbers and their squares in ordered pairs:
(1, 1); (2, 4); (3, 9); (4, 16)
• Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) will be equal e.g.
(a, b) = (c, d) if a = c and b = d

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Cartesian Products
•  Cartesian product of A and B is denoted by A x B
where A x B = {(x, y): x A and y B}

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Cartesian Products

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Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
•  Number of elements in set A is denoted by “n (A)”
• If A and B are disjoint, i.e., if A B = , then
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B)
• If A and B are NOT disjoint, then
n (A B) = n (A) + n (B) – n (A B)
• If A, B and C are NOT disjoint, then
n (A B C) = n (A) + n (B) + n (C) – n (A B) – n (A C)
– n (B C) + n (A B C)
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Theory of Sets
Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Problem#01
• A company studies the product preferences of 20,000
consumers. It was found that each of the products A, B,
C was liked by 7020, 6230, and 5980 consumers
respectively and all the products were liked by 1500
consumers; product A and B were liked by 2580
consumers, product A and C were liked by 1200
consumers and product B and C were liked by 1950
consumers. Prove that the study results are not correct.

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 Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Solution to Problem#01
Let A, B, C denote the set of people who like products A, B, C
respectively.
n(A) = 7420,  n(A B) = 2580,  n(A B C) = 1500,

n(B) = 6230, n(A C) = 1200, n(A B C) = 20,000

n(C) = 5980, n(B C) = 1950,
 
n(A B C)
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A B) – n(A C) – n(B C) + n(A B
C)
= 7020 + 6230 + 5980 – 2580 – 1200 – 1950 + 1500
20,000
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Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Problem#02
• Out of 880 boys in a school, 224 played cricket,
240 played hockey and 336 played basketball.
Out of the total 64 played both basketball and
hockey; 80 played cricket and basketball and 40
played cricket and hockey; 24 boys played all
the three games. How many boys did not play
any game?

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 Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Solution to Problem#02
• Let the C, H and B denote the sets of player playing Cricket,
Hockey and Basketball respectively.
n(C) = 224,  n(H B) = 64,  n(C H B) = 24,
n(H) = 240, n(C B) = 80, n(S) = 880
n(B) = 336, n(C H) = 40,
 Played at leastone game = n(C H B)
= n(C) + n(H) + n(B) – n(C H) – n(H B) – n(C B) + n(C H B)
= 224 + 240 + 336 – 40 – 64 – 80 + 24 = 640
So, number of boys who didn’t play any game
= n(S) - n(C H B) = 880 – 640 = 240
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Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Problem#03
• An inquiry into 1,000 candidates who failed at ICWA Final
Examination revealed the following data:
658 failed in the aggregate; 372 in group I; 590 in group II; 166
failed in the aggregate and in group I; 434 failed in the
aggregate and in group II; 126 failed in both groups
You have to find out how many candidates failed in:
(a) all the three, (b) in aggregate but not in group II, (c) group I
but not in the aggregate, (d) group II but not in group I, (e)
aggregate or group II but not in group I, (f) aggregate but not in
group I and II.
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 Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
• Solution
  to Problem#03
Let n(A) = Students who failed in the aggregate
n(B) = Students who failed in the group I
n(C) = Students who failed in the group II
Given n(A) = 658, n(A
  B) = 166, n(A
  B C) = 1,000
n(B) = 372, n(A C) = 434, n(A B C) = ?
n(C) = 590, n(B C) = 126,
(a) n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A B) – n(A C) – n(B C) + n(A B
C)
1,000 = 658 + 372 + 590 – 166 – 434 – 126 + n(A B C)
n(A B C) = 106 So, candidates failed in all three = 106
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Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
 
Here, A = A
• Solution
  to Problem#03
(b) Candidates failed in
aggregate but not in group
II = A + AB = 164 + 60 = 224
(c) Candidates failed in
group I but not in
aggregate = B + BC = 186 +
20 = 206

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Number of Elements in a
Finite Set
 
• Solution
  to Problem#03 Here, A = A
(d) Candidates failed in group II
but not in group I = C + AC = 136
+ 328 = 464
(e) Candidates failed in aggregate
or group II but not in group I = A
+ AC + C = 164 + 328 + 136 = 628
(f) Candidates failed in aggregate
but not in group I and II = A = 164

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