Dr Somashekhar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600 036
Email: somashekhar@iitm.ac.in; Phone: 044-2257 4681
Recap Computer Architecture
• TOP LEVEL STRUCTURE of Computer
• Two types of computer architectures Computer

1. John von Neumann architecture and

2. Harvard architecture
Memory
CPU Elements

Interconnections

I/O
Devices

Program Memory
Processor Program Memory Processor Data Memory
&

Data Memory

Harvard Architecture
von Neumann Architecture
Recap John von Neumann Architecture
• Consists of : CPU; Memory and I/O Devices

CPU

Control
Unit System Bus:
(Address bus; Data Bus and Control
Bus)

Arithmetic and
Control Unit

I/O Devices
• Basic Characteristics of von-Neumann Architecture are
 Both Data and Instructions are stored in Read/Write (R/W) Memory
 Contents of the R/W memory are accessed by Location (0 to n)
 The instructions stored in memory are accessed and executed sequentially
Recap Origin
• Evolution of microprocessors is categorized into FIVE Generations:
1. First Generation (1971-1973)
 4 bit and 8 bit processors- 4004 and 8008;
 Number of transistors: 2300,
 PMOS  low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and
 serial processing

2. Second Generation (1974-1978)

 8 bit Processors  Motorola’s 6800 and 6809, Intel’s 8085 and Zilog’s Z80;
 Number of transistors : 6500;
 NMOS Technology  5 fold increase in instruction execution speed and higher chip density than PMOS technology

3. Third Generation (1978-1980)

 16 bit processors  Intel’s 8086 and Zilog’s Z8000;
 Number of transistors: 2,50,000 transistor;
 HMOS Technology  4 fold increase in instruction execution speed and 2 fold higher chip density than NMOS
technology
Recap Origin
• Evolution of microprocessors is categorized into FIVE Generations:
4. Fourth Generation (1981 to 1995)
 32 bit processors  Motorola’s 68020 / 68030 and 6809, Intel’s 80386
 No. of transistors: million
 HCMOS  low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and

5. Fifth Generation (1995-till date)

 64 bit processors  Intel’s Pentium, Celeron, dual-core and quad-core, Zilog’s Z8000
 No. of transistors: million
 HCMOS  low cost, slow speed and low output currents ; and
Recap Evolution Tree of Microprocessors
Main Branch in the Tree shows the  Development in Computers
General Purpose Processors : Data Length - 4 bit  8 bit 16 bit 32 bit  64 bit
Performance also increased using Pipelining, Superscalar Processors , Cache

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(Intel 64 bit µP)
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4004 (1971)

Pipelining  technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution. 

Superscalar Processors   more than one instruction at a time to be executed during a single clock cycle.
Cache  Special high-speed storage mechanism. 
Recap Digital Fundamentals

• A digital circuit operates with binary numbers i.e. only in two states.

• The output of the circuit is either LOW (0) or HIGH (1) in Positive Logic System while it is
reverse in Negative Logic System

• LOW (0) represents 0 volts and HIGH (1) represents 5 Volts

• So in digital systems, the data is usually in binary states ( 0 & 1) and is processed and
stored electronically to prevent errors due to noise and interfering signals

• Digital Circuits find wide applications in

– Computers

– Telephony

– Data Processing

– Radar Navigation

– Military System

– Medical Instruments and

– Many Consumer Products  TV, Dish Washers, Washing machine, Air Conditioners etc
Recap Learning Outcomes
• General Properties of
– Number System or Digital Number System (DNS)
– Methods of Conversion from one to another
– Arithmetic and Boolean Operation
– Weighted and Non-weighted Codes
– Error Detecting and Correcting codes
– Logic Gates
– Flip flops
– Registers and counters
are very much essential in Digital Circuits
 Number Systems : Radix and their Symbols

Sl. No. Number System Radix or Symbols

Base
1 Binary Number 2 0, 1
2 Octal Number 8 0 to 7 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
3 Decimal Number 10 0 to 9 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
4 Hexadecimal Number 16 0 to F (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
A, B, C, D, E, F)
 A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 8 into an equivalent Binary Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 2 progressively until the quotient is
zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER”  Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained
– This method is popularly known as the “Double-Dabble Method”

• (8)10 = (1000)2 • (53)10 = (_____)2

• (17)10 = (_________)2 • (53)10 = (110101)2

• (17)10 = (10001)2 • (76)10 = (_____)2 • (76)10 = (1001100)2
 A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Fractional Part
• Convert the Fractional Number 0.625 into an equivalent Binary
Number
• Procedure
– Multiply the Given Fractional Number continuously by 2 and record the carry
in the integer position each time
– The carries in the “FORWARD ORDER”  Reading the carries from TOP to
BOTTOM

• (0.625)10 = (0.1010)2

• (0.7)10 = (_________)2

• (0.7)10 = (0.101100110)2
 A. Conversion : Decimal Number to Binary Number
• Home Work
• (68)10 = (________)2

• (125)10 = (________)2

• (58.25)10 = (________)2
 B. Conversion : Binary Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Integer as well as Fraction  A binary number can be converted into a Decimal Number
by Multiplying the Binary Number (1 or 0) by their Weights and Adding the Products

• Convert the Binary Number (101111) into an equivalent Decimal Number

• (101111)2 = (47)10

• (11010)2 = (____)10

• (11010)2 = (26)10

• (0.1101)2 = (____)10
• (0.1101)2 = (0.8125)10
• (0.10011)2 = (____)10
 Octal Number
• Decimal Number to Octal Number
 Integer Number  Divide by 8 and Note Remainder  Bottom to Top
 Fraction Number  Multiply by 8 and Note Carry  Top to Bottom

• Octal Number to Decimal Number

 Integer as well as Fraction Number  Multiply each significant digit of the
octal number by its weight and add together

• Octal Number to Binary Numbers

 Each significant digit in the octal number is replaced by its 3-bit binary
equivalent
• Binary to Octal Numbers
 Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group of 3 bits  is replaced by
its octal equivalents
 C. Conversion : Decimal Number to Octal Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 444 into an equivalent Octal Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 8 progressively until the quotient is
zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER”  Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained
• Home Work
• (444)10 = (674)8
• (909)10 = (________)8
• (173)10 = (_____)8
• (2111)10 = (________)8
• (173)10 = (255)8
• (9713)10 = (________)8
 C. Conversion : Fractional Decimal Number to Octal Number
• Fractional Part
• Convert the Fractional Number 0.456 into an equivalent Octal
Number
• Procedure
– Multiply the Given Fractional Number continuously by 8 and record the carry
in the integer position each time
– The carries in the “FORWARD ORDER”  Reading the carries from TOP to
BOTTOM

• (0.456)10 = (0.35136)8

• (0.758)10 = (_________)8
 D. Conversion : Octal Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Multiply each significant digit of the octal number by its respective weights
and adding the product

• Convert the Octal Number (237) into an equivalent Decimal

Number

• (237)8 = (159)10

• (120)8 = (____)10

• (120)8 = (80)10

• (540)8 = (____)10
 E. Conversion : Octal Number to Binary Number
• Procedure Decimal Octal 3-bit Binary
No No Equivalent
– Each significant digit in the Octal Number is
replaced by its 3-bit binary equivalent 0 0 000
1 1 001

• Convert the Octal Number (376) into an 2 2 010

equivalent Binary Number 3 3 011

4 4 100
5 5 101
• (376)8 = (011 111 110)2 6 6 110
7 7 111

• (526)8 = (____)2
• (526)8 = (101 010 110)2
• Home Work

• (45.312)8 = (____)2 • (576.135)8 = (____)2

• (45.312)8 = (100 101 . 011 001 010)2 • (76.207)8 = (____)2

 F. Conversion : Binary Number to Octal Number
• Procedure Decimal Octal 3-bit Binary
No. No. Equivalent
– Start from LSD, each group of 3 bits is replaced by
its decimal number 0 0 000
1 1 001

• Convert the Binary Number (10011010101) 2 2 010

into an equivalent Octal Number 3 3 011

4 4 100
5 5 101
• (010 011 010 101)2 = (2 3 2 5)8 6 6 110
7 7 111

• (11011000101)2 = (____)8
• (11011000101)2 = (3305)8
• Home Work

• (11011.01)2 = (__)8

• (111001.0101)2 =(_)8
 Hexadecimal Number
• Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Number
 Integer Number  Divide by 16 and Note Remainder  Bottom to Top
 Fraction Number  Multiply by 16 and Note Carry  Top to Bottom

• Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number

 Integer as well as Fraction Number  Multiply each significant digit of the
hexadecimal number by its respective weights and add together

• Hexadecimal Number to Binary Numbers

 Each significant digit in the Hexadecimal number is replaced by its 4-bit
binary equivalent
• Binary to Hexadecimal Numbers
 Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group of 4 bits  is replaced by
its hexadecimal equivalents
 G. Conversion : Decimal Number to Hexadecimal Number
• Integer Part and Fractional Part
• Let us start with Integer Part
• Convert the Decimal Number 115 into an equivalent Hexadecimal
Number
• Procedure
– Dividing the given Decimal number by 16 progressively until the quotient is zero
– The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder after each division in
the “REVERSE ORDER”  Reading the remainder from BOTTOM to TOP
– Note: The process is terminated when Most Significant Digit is obtained

• Home Work
• (115)10 = (73)16
• (909)10 = (________)16
• (235)10 = (_____)16
• (2111)10 = (________)16
• (235)10 = (EB)8
• (9713)10 = (________)16
 H. Conversion : Hexadecimal Number to Decimal Number
• Procedure
– Multiply each significant digit of the Hexadecimal number by its respective
weights and adding the product

• Convert the Hexadecimal Number (A3B) into an equivalent

Decimal Number

• (A3B)16 = (2619)10 • Home Work

• (2F3)H = (755)10
• (A9E)H = (____)10
• (120)8 = (80)10
• (59D)H = (____)10

• (CF3D)H = (____)10 • (BEA6)H = (____)10

• (CF3D)H = (53053)10
 I. Conversion : Hexadecimal Number to Binary Number
• Procedure
Sl. HDM 4-bit Binary
– Each significant digit in the Hexadecimal Number No Equivalent
is replaced by its 4-bit binary equivalent 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
• Convert the Hexadecimal Number (2D5) 2 2 0010

into an equivalent Binary Number 3 3 0011

4 4 0100

• (2D5)H = (0010 1101 0101)2 5 5 0101

6 6 0110
7 7 0111

• (7DE)H = (____)2 8 8 1000

9 9 1001
• (7DE)H = (0111 1101 1110)2 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
• (6AE)H = (____)2 13 D 1101
14 E 1110
• (6A.64)H = (0110 1010.0110 0100)2 15 F 1111
 J. Conversion : Binary Number to Hexadecimal Number
• Procedure
Sl. HDM 4-bit Binary
 Start from LSD (Least Significant Digit), each group of 4 No Equivalent
bits  is replaced by its Hexadecimal equivalents
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
• Convert the Binary Number (11110110101) 2 2 0010

into an equivalent Hexadecimal Number 3 3 0011

4 4 0100

• (0111 1011 0101)2 = (7B5)H 5 5 0101

6 6 0110
7 7 0111

• (11000)2 = (____)H 8 8 1000

9 9 1001
• (0001 1000)2 = (18)H 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
12 C 1100
• (100101.0111110)2 = (____)H 13 D 1101
14 E 1110
• (0010 0101.0111 1100)2 = (25.7C)H 15 F 1111
Next Class :
11 August 2016: Thursday
th

(10:00 am to 10: 50 am)