Unit-7

Switching Charateristics of Devices

 The BJT as a Switch
 The BJT can be used as a switch by driving it back and
forth between saturation (closed) and cutoff (open).
 Open and Closed BJT Switch

 When operated in
saturation, the BJT
acts as a closed
switch.
 When operated in
cutoff, the BJT acts
as an open switch.
 Saturation
 Transistor saturation can be guaranteed by designing the
circuit so that:
 +Vpk = VCC
 IB is greater than IC(sat) / hFE
BJT – disposición física
Característica en conexión directa
Completo: directa + reversa
Modelo Ebers-Moll
Regiones de operación
En corte (simplificado)
En saturación (simplificado)
En saturación (simplificado)
 Velocidad de conmutación de un Diodo

NOTA: diodos PN no shottky

Velocidad de conmutación de un BJT
Conmutación del BJT
 Conmutación del BJT

Td->sale del corte 0.1ICS

Tr->acumulación de carga en la base
Ts->eliminación de sobresaturación
Tf->reducción de carga en la base
Transistor Schottky

En saturación
 Waveform Time Measurements

 Delay time (td)

 Rise time (tr)
 Storage time (ts)
 Fall time (tf)
 Wave Shape vs. Operating
Frequency
0.35
Cutoff frequency: fC 
tr

0.35
Practical frequency limit: fC 
100t r
 Reducing BJT Switching Time
 BJT delay time is reduced by:
 Applying a high initial value of base current.
 Using the minimum value of reverse bias required to hold
the component in cutoff.
 BJT storage time is reduced by:
 Limiting base current to a value lower than that required to
completely saturate the BJT.
 Applying a high initial reverse bias to the component.
 Rise time and fall time are functions of BJT construction,
and cannot effectively be reduced.
 Speed-Up Capacitors
 Speed-up capacitor – A component used to
reduce delay time and storage time.

1
CS 
20 RB f max
 Practical Waveform
Measurements
 Pulse width (PW) – The time spent in the active (high) dc
voltage state.
 Space width (SW) – The time spent in the passive (low) dc
voltage state.
 Period (T) – The sum of PW and SW. Also referred to as
cycle time.
 Duty Cycle
 Duty cycle – The ratio of pulse width (PW) to period (T),
measured as a percentage.

pulse width
duty cycle   100
period
Buffers
 Buffer – A switching circuit that does not produce a
voltage phase shift.
 Schmitt Triggers
 Schmitt trigger – A voltage-level detector.
 The output of a Schmitt trigger changes state when
 When a positive-going input passes the upper trigger point
(UTP) voltage.
 When a negative-going input passes the lower trigger point
(LTP) voltage.
 Trigger Point Voltages
 Trigger point voltages may be equal or unequal in
magnitude, and are opposite in polarity.
 Hysteresis
 Hysteresis – A term that is often used to describe the
range of voltages between the UTP and LTP of a Schmitt
trigger.
Noninverting Schmitt Trigger
(Symmetrical trigger points)

Rin Rin
UTP   ( Vout ) LTP   (Vout )
Rf Rf
 Noninverting Schmitt Trigger
(Asymmetrical trigger points)

Rin Rin
UTP   (Vout  0.7 V) LTP   (Vout  0.7 V)
Rf 1 Rf 2
 Inverting Schmitt Trigger
(Symmetrical trigger points)

Rf 2 Rf 2
UTP  (Vout ) LTP  (Vout )
Rf1  Rf 2 Rf1  Rf 2
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
(Asymmetrical trigger points)
Rf 3 Rf 3
UTP  (Vout  0.7 V) LTP  (Vout  0.7 V)
Rf 1  Rf 3 Rf 2  Rf 3
Schmidt trigger con transistores
 Multivibrators
 Multivibrator – A circuit designed to have zero, one,
or two stable output states.
 There are three types of multivibrators.
 Astable (or Free-Running Multivibrator)
 Monostable (or One-Shot)
 Bistable (or Flip-Flop)
 Astable Multivibrators
 Astable multivibrator – A switching circuit that has no
stable output state.
 The astable multivibrator is a rectangular-wave oscillator.
 Also referred to as a free-running multivibrator.
 Monostable Multivibrators
 Monostable multivibrator – A switching circuit with
one stable output state.
 Also referred to as a one-shot.
 The one-shot produces a single output pulse when it
receives a valid input trigger signal.
 Bistable Multivibrators
 Bistable multivibrator – A switching circuit with two
stable output states.
 Also referred to as a flip-flop.
 The output changes state when it receives a valid input
trigger signal, and remains in that state until another valid
trigger signal is received.
 The 555 Timer
 555 timer – An 8-pin IC designed for use in a variety of
switching applications.
Comparator Input/Output
Relationships
Flip-Flop Input/Output
Relationships
555 Timer One-Shot
555 Timer One-Shot Waveforms
PW  1.1RC
Intermittent One-Shot Operation
 A valid input trigger fulfills one of these relationships:
VT  1
3 VCC
VT  1
2 Vcon
 Invalid input signals may result in intermittent operation.
 Decoupling Capacitors
 Decoupling capacitor – A
capacitor connected between the
supply voltage and ground pins
of an IC to prevent intermittent
high-frequency operation.
555 Timer Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrator Waveforms
 Astable Multivibrator
Relationships

1.44
f0 
( R A  2 RB )C1
R A  RB
duty cycle   100
R A  2 RB
PW  0.693( R A  RB )C1
 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators
(VCOs)
 Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) – A free-running
oscillator whose output frequency is controlled by a dc
input voltage.