CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Chapter 3
Special Purpose Diodes
-ZENER DIODE-

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS - I 64201 ECE DEPARTMENT

 OBJECTIVE
 Describe the characteristic of zener diode and analyze its
operation.
 Explain how a zener diode is used in voltage reference,
regulation and limiting applications.
 Troubleshoot zener diode regulators.
 INTRODUCTION
 Zener diode – silicon pn-junction device that is
designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown
region.
 The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a
nearly constant dc voltage under proper operating
condition.
 Typically it is used to provide a stable reference
voltage for use in power supplies, voltmeter and other
equipment.
Zener diode symbol
 INTRODUCTION

 Breakdown voltage – set by controlling the doping

level during manufacture.
 When diode reached reverse breakdown – voltage
remains constant even though current changes
drastically.
 If zener diode is FB – operates the same as a
rectifier diode.
 A zener diode is much like a normal diode – but it
is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates
in reverse breakdown.
 Note that it’s forward characteristics are just like a
normal diode.
INTRODUCTION

General diode V-I characteristic

 ZENER BREAKDOWN
 Two types of reverse breakdown: avalanche breakdown & zener
breakdown

 i) avalanche breakdown
- occurs in both rectifier & zener diodes at high reverse voltage
- breakdown voltage greater than approximately 5V

 ii) zener breakdown

- occurs at relatively low reverse voltage
- a zener diode is heavily doped to reduce breakdown voltage
- this causes very thin depletion region
- as a result, intense electric field exists within the depletion region
- Near zener breakdown voltage (Vz), the field have enough energy to
pull electrons from their valence bands and create current.

 Note: both type called zener diode (breakdown voltages of 1.8V – 200 V)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Min current required to

maintain voltage regulation

The current level at which the

VZ rating diode is measured

Max amount of current the

diode can handle without
being damaged/destroyed
 BREAKDOWN CHARACTERISTIC
 The reverse voltage (VR) is increased – the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve.
 Reverse current – called the zener current, IZ.
 At that point, breakdown effect begin where zener impedance
(Zz) begin to decrease as IZ increases rapidly.
 At the bottom of the knee- the zener breakdown voltage (VZ)
remains constant although it increase slightly as the zener
current, IZ increase.
 IZK – min. current required to maintain voltage regulation
 IZM – max. amount of current the diode can handle without being
damage/destroyed
 IZT – the current level at which the VZ rating of diode is
measured (specified on a data sheet)
 The zener diode maintains nearly constant voltage for value of
reverse current rating from IZK to IZM
ZENER EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

Zener impedance

Zener diode equivalent circuit model and the

Characteristic curve illustrating Zz
 ZENER EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
 Since the actual voltage is not ideally vertical, the
change in zener current produces a small change in
zener voltage
 By ohm’s law: VZ
Z 
Z
I Z

 Normally -Zz is specified at IZT.

 In most cases, assume Zz is constant over full range
of zener current values and is purely resistive.
 Ex 3-1 A zener diode exhibits a certain change in VZ for a certain change in IZ on a
portion of the linear characteristic curve between I ZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure.
What is the zener impedance?

VZ 50mV
ZZ    10
I Z 5mV
The amount and type
of information found on
Datasheets for zener
Diodes.

VZ: zener voltage

IZT: zener test current
ZZT: zener Impedance
IZK: zener knee current
IZM: maximum zener
current
Ex 3-2
 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
The zener voltage of a zener diode is very sensitive to the temperature of operation.
The formula for calculating the change in zener voltage due to a change in
temperature is
VZ  VZ  TC  (T1  T0 )

The temperature coefficient (Tc) can be used to find change in Vz due to change in
Temperature using

VZ VZ
Tc   100% / C
o

T1  To
where, VZ = nominal zener voltage at the reference temperature of 25 oC.
TC = temperature coefficient.
T1 = new temperature level.
T0 = reference temperature of 25oC.
The temperature coefficient specifies the percent change in zener voltage for each oC
change in temperature. For example, a 12 V zener diode with a positive temperature
coefficient of 0.01%/oC will exhibit a 1.2 mV increase in VZ when the junction
temperature increases one Celsius degree. ΔVZ = VZ × TC × ΔT
Where VZ is the nominal zener voltage at 25 oC, TC is the temperature coefficient, and
ΔT is the change in temperature.

Ex 3-3 An 8.2 V zener diode (8.2 V at 25 oC) has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.05 %/oC.
What is the zener voltage at 60 oC?

The change in zener voltage is

ΔVZ = VZ × TC × ΔT = (8.2 V)(0.05 %/oC)(60 oC – 25 oC)
= (8.2 V)(0.0005/oC)(35 oC) = 144 mV
Notice that 0.05%/oC was converted to 0.0005/oC. The zener voltage at 60 oC is
VZ + ΔVZ = 8.2 V + 144 mV = 8.34 V
 ZENER POWER DISSIPATION
Zener diodes are special diodes manufactured with adequate power
dissipation capabilities to operate in the breakdown region
The maximum current that may be carried by a given zener diode
depends on both the zener voltage and the maximum dc power
dissipation capability of the diode.
The dc power dissipation of the zener diode is given by the formula,

PD  I ZVZ
 ZENER POWER DERATING
The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is specified for
temperature at or below a certain value (50oC, for example).
Above the specified temperature, the maximum power dissipation is
reduced according to a derating factor. The derating factor is expressed
in mW/oC.
The maximum derated power can be determined with the following
formula:

PD ( derated)  PD (max)  (mW / C )T o

 Zener diodes are specified to operate at a maximum power called
the maximum dc power dissipation, PD(max).
PD = VZIZ
The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is typically
specified for temperature at or below a certain value (50 oC, for
example). The derating factor is expressed in mW/oC. The
maximum derated power can be determined with the following
formula:
PD(derated) = PD(max) – (mW/oC)ΔT

Ex 3-4 A certain zener diode has a maximum power rating of 400 mW at 50

o
C and a derating factor of 3.2 mW/oC. Determine the maximum power the zener
can dissipate at a temperature of 90 oC.
PD(derated) = PD(max) – (mW/oC)ΔT
= 400 mW – (3.2 mW/oC)(90oC – 50 oC)
= 400 mW – 128 mW = 272 mW
 ZENER DIODE
APPLICATIONS

 Zener diode can be used as:

Voltage regulator to provide stable reference
voltage.
Simple limiter or clipper
 ZENER REGULATION WITH A
VARYING INPUT VOLTAGE
 As i/p voltage varies (within limits) – zener diode maintains a
constant o/p voltage
 As VIN changes, IZ will change proportionally, so i/p voltage
variations are set by the min. & max. current value (IZK & IZM)
with which the zener can operate.
 Resistor, R –current limiting resistor
Ex 3-5: Determine the minimum and the maximum input voltages that can be
regulated by the zener diode in Figure below

Maintain o/p voltage

 From data sheet, 1N4740 10V zener diode maintain
regulation from IZK=0.25mA to IZM=100mA.
 So, I ZK  0.25mA, PD (max)  1W ,VZ  10V
PD (max)
I ZM   100mA
VZ
 For min. zener current, the voltage across the 220 ohm
resistor:
 SinceVV = VINR- V
R R I ZK Z(,0.25)( 220)  55mV
VIN (min)  VR  VZ  55mV  10V  10.055mV

 For max. zener current, the voltage across resistor is:

VR  I ZM R  (100mA)( 220)  22V
 Thus
VIN (max)  22V  10V  32V
Zener diode can ideally regulate an input voltage from 10.055 V to 32 V and
maintain an approximate 10 V output

i/p vary from

10.055V – 32V

Maintain o/p voltage

Ex 3-6 Determine the minimum and the maximum input voltages that can be
regulated by the zener diode in Figure.
 From the data sheet in Figure, the following information for the IN4733 is
obtained:
VZ = 5.1 V at IZT = 49 mA, IZK = 1 mA, and ZZ = 7 Ω at IZT.
PD (max) 1W
I ZM    196mA
VZ 5.1V
VOUT ≈ 5.1V – ΔVZ
= 5.1 V – (IZT – IZK)ZZ
= 5.1 V – (48 mA)(7 Ω)
= 5.1 V – 0.336 V
= 4.76 V

VIN(min) = IZKR + VOUT

= (1 mA)(100 Ω) + 4.76 V = 4.86 V
VOUT ≈ 5.1V + ΔVZ
= 5.1 V + (IZM – IZT)ZZ
= 5.1 V + (147 mA)(7 Ω)
= 5.1 V + 1.03 V
= 6.13 V
VIN(max) = IZMR + VOUT
= (196 mA)(100 Ω) + 6.13 V = 25.7 V
Exercise
Figure below shows a Zener regulator circuit with varying input voltage,V in.
By referring to the datasheet in Appendix A, evaluate:
a) output voltage, Vout at Zener knee current, IZK.
b) output voltage, Vout at Zener maximum current, IZM
c) minimum and maximum input voltages that can be regulated by the
Zener diode.
Follow these steps
 Check datasheet for values of Vz, Zz and Iz
For MAXIMUM voltage,
 Find Iz max using power value given in the datasheet
 Find Vout  Vz  Vz Vz  ( Izmax  Iz ) Zz
where
 Find Vin using KVL
For MINIMUM voltage,
 Find Izmin = IZK
Vz  ( Iz  Izk ) Zz
 Find Vout  Vz  Vz where
 Find Vin using KVL
 ZENER REGULATION WITH
A VARIABLE LOAD
 In this illustration of zener regulation circuit, the zener diode
will “adjust” its impedance based on varying input voltages and
loads (RL) to be able to maintain its designated zener voltage.
 Zener current will increase or decrease directly with voltage
input changes. The zener current will increase or decrease
inversely with varying loads. Again, the zener has a finite range
of operation.
Note: The zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across
RL as
long as the zener current is greater than IZK and less than IZM
 FROM NO LOAD TO FULL
LOAD
 When output terminal of zener diode is open (R L= ), the
load current is zero.
 All of the current is through the zener =>no-load condition.
 When RL is connected, current is flow through zener and RL.
 The total current through R is constant as long as zener is
regulating.
 As RL decreases, load current IL increases, IZ decreases.
 Zener diode continues to regulate the voltage until IZ reaches
its minimum value, IZK.
 At this point, IL is maximum and full-load condition exists.
Ex 3-7
 Determine the minimum and maximum load current for
which the zener diode will maintain regulation. What is the
minimum RL that can be used? VZ=12V, IZK=1mA and
IZM=50mA. Assume ZZ=0Ω and VZ remains a constant 12V
over range of current values.
Solution
 Step 1: When IL=0A (RL= ), IZ is maximum and equal to
the total current, IT.
V in  V Z 24  12
I z (max)  I T    25.5mA
R 470
 Step 2: IZ(max) is less than IZM, so 0A is min. value for IL
because zener can handle all of 25.5mA. RL can be removed
from the circuit. IL(min) = 0A
 Step 3: The max value of IL occurs when IZ is min (IZ=IZK)
I L(max)  I T  I ZK  25.5mA  1mA  24.5mA

 Step 4: The minimumVvalue of 12

RL is:
R L(min) Z
  490
I L(max) 24.5
Ex 3-8
 Figure below shown a 1N4733 zener regulated circuit. Given
VZ = 10 V at IZT = 10mA,IZK = 5mA, ZZ = 20  and IZM =
20mA. Determine the maximum permissible load currents.

100 
+

Vin
24 V RL
1N4733

-
First step..
 The change in zener voltage, V Z  I Z Z Z
 The change in zener current, I Z  I ZT  I ZK @ I ZM  I ZT
 Zener voltage for min and max values are:
V Z (min)  V Z  V Z

V Z (max)  V Z  V Z

 Maximum and minimum zener current:

Vin  V Z (max) VR
I Z (max)  I T  
R R
Vin  V Z (min) V
I Z (min)  I T   R
R R
I L(max)  I T  I ZK
 Maximum and minimum load current:
I L(min)  I T  I ZM
From example 3-8
 To find IL(max), let analyze the circuit…zener diode connected
in parallel with load resistor, RL. For parallel circuit, V same
but I is different.
 A certain amount of I from source will flow through zener
diode and RL. If I through zener diode is max, I flow
through RL is min. If I through zener diode is min, I
through RL is max. V for both zener and RL is the SAME.
 So, when current through zener diode, IZ is min, VZ also min.
On the other hand, IL will be max as well as VL max.
V Z (min)  V Z  V Z
 Now, find VZ(min) from the formula.

V Z  I Z Z Z I Z  I ZT  I ZK
Solution..
 The change in zener current is:I Z  I ZT  I ZK  10m  5m  5mA
 Find VZ(min): VZ  I Z Z Z  0.005 A( 20)  0.1V
VZ (min)  VZ  VZ  10  0.1  9.9V

 So, VZ(min)=9.9V. Then, we need to find total current through

the circuit, IZ(min). Using the formula,
Vin  VZ (min) V R 24  9.9
I Z (min)  I T     0.141A  141mA
R R 100

 Finally find IL(max) using the formula below. Given in the

question, IZK=5mA. So, IL(max) is
I L (max)  I T  I ZK  141m  5m  136mA
 ZENER LIMITING
 Zener diode also can be used in ac applications to limit
voltage swings to desired level
a) To limit the +ve peak of a signal voltage to the selected
zener voltage
 During –ve alternation, zener acts as FB diode &
limits the –ve voltage to -0.7V
b) Zener diode is turn around
 The –ve peak is by FB zener action & +ve voltage is
limited to +0.7V
c) Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to the zener
voltage ±0.7V
 During the +ve alternation, D2 is functioning as the
zener limiter – D1 is functioning as a FB diode.
 During the –ve alternation-the roles are reversed
Basic zener limiting action with a sinusoidal
input voltage
Example 4

 Determine the output voltage for each limiting circuit

shown below.
Solution example 4
 When one zener is operating in breakdown, the other one is
FB with approximately 0.7V across it. For figure a, during
+ve cycle, D1(3.3V) FB while D2(5.1V) is zener limiter. For
figure b, D1(6.2V) is zener limiter and D2(15V) is FB
during +ve cycle.
 TROUBLESHOOT
 Although precise power supplies typically use IC type
regulators, zener diodes can be used alone as a voltage
regulator. As with all troubleshooting techniques we must
know what is normal.

A properly functioning zener will work to maintain the

output voltage within certain limits despite changes in load.
 TROUBLESHOOT
 With an open zener diode, the full unregulated voltage will
be present at the output without a load. In some cases with
full or partial loading an open zener could remain
undetected.
no voltage dropped between
the filtered o/p of the power
supply & the o/p terminal

undetected
 TROUBLESHOOT

 With excessive zener impedance the voltage would be

higher than normal but less than the full unregulated output.

The zener has failed such that its internal

impedance is more than it should be.
 SUMMARY

 The zener diode operates in reverse

breakdown.
A zener diode maintains a nearly constant
voltage across its terminals over a specified
range
Line of currents.is the maintenance of a
regulation
specific voltage with changing input voltages.
 Load regulation is the maintenance of a
specific voltage for different loads.
 OTHER TYPES OF DIODE

 Optical Diode
 Current Regulator Diode
 Schottky Diode
 PIN Diode
 Step-recovery Diode
 Tunnel Diode
 Laser Diode
 Varactor Diode
Varactor is a type of p-n junction diode that
operates in reverse bias. The capacitance of the
junction is controlled by the amount of reverse bias.
Varactor diodes are also referred to as varicaps or
tuning diodes and they are commonly used in
communication systems. Fig.3-1: Varactor diode symbol

3.3.1 Basic Operation

The capacitance of a reverse-biased varactor
junction is found as:

A
C
d
where, C = the total junction capacitance.
A = the plate area.
ε = the dielectric constant (permittivity). FIG: Reverse-biased varactor
d = the width of the depletion region diode acts as a variable
capacitor.
(plate separation).
The ability of a varactor to act as a voltage-controlled capacitor is
demonstrated in Fig. 3-10.

Fig.3-10: Varactor diode capacitance varies with reverse voltage.

As the reverse-bias voltage increases, the depletion region widens,

increasing the plate separation, thus decreasing the capacitance.
When the reverse-bias voltage decreases, the depletion region narrows,
thus increasing the capacitance.
 Varactor Application
A major application of varactor is in tuning circuits, for example, VHF, UHF, and
satelite receivers utilize varactors. Varactors are also used in cellular
communications.
When used in a parallel resonant circuit, as shown in Fig. 3-11, the varactor acts
as a variable capacitor, thus allowing the resonant frequency to be adjusted by
a variable voltage level.

Fig.3-11: A resonant band-pass filter.

 C1 prevents a dc path from potentiometer wiper back to the ac source through
the inductor and R1.
C2 prevents a dc path from cathode to the anode of the varactor through the
inductor.
C3 prevents a dc path from the wiper to a load on the output through the inductor.
C4 prevents a dc path from the wiper to ground.
R2, R3, R4 and R5 function as a variable dc voltage divider for biasing the varactor.

The parallel resonant frequency of the LC circuit is

1
fr  (3-14)
2 LC

where, L = the inductance of an inductor (H)

C = the capacitance of a capacitor (F).
 Optical Diodes
There are two popular types of optoelectronic devices: light-emitting diode
(LED) and photodiode.

3.4.1 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is diode that emits light when biased in the forward direction of p-n
junction.

Anode Cathode

(b) (c)

Fig.3-12: The schematic symbol and construction features.

 Fig.3-13: LED that are produced in an array of shapes and sizes.

LED characteristics:
characteristic curves are very similar to those for p-n junction diodes
higher forward voltage (VF)
lower reverse breakdown voltage (VBR).
The basic operation of LED is as illustrated in
Fig. 3-14:
“When the device is forward-biased,
electrons cross the p-n junction from the n-
type material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. These free electrons
are in the conduction band and at a higher
energy than the holes in the valence band.
When the recombination process takes
place, the recombining electrons release
energy in the form photons.
A large exposed surface area on one layer of
the semiconductive material permits the
photons to be emitted as visible light.”
This process is called electroluminescence. Fig.3–14:
Electroluminescence in a
forward-biased LED.
Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish the
wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength determines the color of visible
light.
 LED Semiconductor Materials
The color emitted by a given LED depends on the combination of elements used to
produce the component. Some common element combinations are identified in Table 3-1.

TABLE 3-1: Common LEDs VF is measured at IF = 20 mA in each case.

Compound Forward Voltage (VF) Color Emitted

GaAs 1.5 V Infrared (invisible)

AlGaAs 1.8 V Red

GaP 2.4 V Green
GaAsP 2.0 V Orange
GaN 4.1 V White
AlGaInP 2.0 V Amber (yellow)
AlGaInN 3.6 V Blue
 Current-Limiting Resistor
When used in most practical applications, LED require the use of a series current-
limiting resistor, as shown in Fig. 3-15 (a). The resistor ensures that the maximum
current rating of the LED can not be exceeded by the circuit current.
The amount of power output translated into light is directly proportional to the
forward current, as indicated in Fig. 3-15 (b)

Fig.3-15: Basic operation of a LED.

The limiting resistor (RLIMIT) is determined using the following
question:

VBias  VF
RLIMIT 
IF
 Application
The seven segment display is an example of LEDs use for display of
decimal digits.

Fig.3-16: The 7-segment LED display.

 Photodiode
Photodiode is a p-n junction that can
convert light energy into electrical
energy. A light detector
It operates in reverse bias voltage (VR),
as shown in Fig. 3-17, where Iλ is the
reverse light current.
It has a small transparent window that
allows light to strike the p-n junction.
The resistance of a photodiode is Iλ
calculated by the formula as follows:

VR
RR 
I
Fig.3-17: Photodiode.
When its p-n junction is exposed to light, the reverse current increases with the light
intensity as shown by the graph in Fig. 3-18 expressed as irradiance (mW/cm2).
When there is no incident light, the reverse current is almost negligible and is called
the dark current.

Fig.3-18: Typical photodiode characteristics.

Fig. 3-19 illustrates that the photodiode is placed in the circuit in reverse bias. As with most
diodes when in reverse bias, no current flows when in reverse bias, but when light strikes
the exposed junction through a tiny window, reverse current increases proportional to light
intensity.

Fig.3-19: Operation of photodiode.

 Other Types of Diodes
3.5.1 The Schottky Diode

A Schottky diode symbol is shown in Fig. 3-20(a). The Schottky diode’s significant
characteristic is its fast switching speed. This is useful for high frequencies and digital
applications. It is not a typical diode in that it does not have a p-n junction. Instead, it
consists of a doped semiconductor (usually n-type) and metal bound together, as shown in
Fig. 3-20(b).

Fig.3-20: (a) Schottky diode symbol and (b) basic internal construction of a
Schottky diode.
 The Laser Diode
The laser diode (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)
produces a monochromatic (single color) light. Laser diodes in conjunction
with photodiodes are used to retrieve data from compact discs.

Fig.3-21: Basic laser diode construction and operation.

 The PIN Diode
The pin diode is also used in mostly microwave frequency
applications. Its variable forward series resistance
characteristic is used for attenuation, modulation, and
switching. In reverse bias it exhibits a nearly constant
capacitance.

Fig.3-22: PIN diode

 Current Regulator Diode
Current regulator diodes keeps a constant current
value over a specified range of forward voltages
ranging from about 1.5 V to 6 V.

Fig.3-23: Symbol for a current regulator diode.

The Step-Recovery Diode
The step-recovery diode is also used for fast switching applications. This
is achieved by reduced doping at the junction.
The Tunnel Diode
The tunnel diode has negative resistance. It will actually conduct well
with low forward bias. With further increases in bias it reaches the
negative resistance range where current will actually go down. This is
achieved by heavily-doped p and n materials that creates a very thin
depletion region.

Fig.3-24: Tunnel diode symbol and characteristic curve.