4.

2 Digital Transmission
Outlines

□ Pulse Modulation (Part 2.1)

□ Pulse Code Modulation (Part 2.2)
□ Delta Modulation (Part 2.3)
□ Line Codes (Part 2.4)
Example 4.2 
For a PCM system with a maximum audio input frequency 4 kHz determine the minimum sample
rate and the alias frequency produced if a 5 kHz audio signal were allowed to enter the sample-
and-hold circuit.

Solution:
Using Nyquist’s sampling theorem ,we have
fs ≥ 2fm therefore, fs ≥ 8 kHz 
If a 5 kHz audio frequency entered the sample-and-hold circuit, the output spectrum shown in
Figure 4.4 is produced. It can be seen that the 5 kHz signal produces an alias frequency of 3
kHz that has been introduced into the original audio spectrum.

Figure 4.2.1: Output spectrum for Example 4.2.

Basicscheme of PCM system
Quantization
Quantization Error
Companding
Block diagram & function of TDM-PCM
communication system
 Basic scheme of PCM system

The most common technique for using digital

signals to encode analog data is PCM.
Example: To transfer analog voice signals off a
local loop to digital end office within the phone
system, one uses a codec.
 Cont’d...
Because voice data limited to frequencies below 4000
Hz, a codec makes 8000 samples/sec. (i.e., 125
microsecond/sample).

Ifa signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher

than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples
contain all the information of the original signal.
 PCM Block Diagram

• Most common form of analog to digital modulation

• Four step process
1. Signal is sampled using PAM (Sample)
2. Integer values assigned to signal (PAM)
3. Values converted to binary (Quantized)
4. Signal is digitally encoded for transmission
(Encoded)
4 Steps Process
Cont’d…
 Analog signal is sampled.
 Converted to discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

 Pulses are quantized and assigned a digital value.

◦ A 7-bit sample allows 128 quantizing levels.

 PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude spacing of levels is non-linear

◦ There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low amplitude
◦ This reduces overall signal distortion.

 This introduces quantizing error (or noise).

 PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit stream.
 8000 samples/sec x 7 bits/sample = 56 Kbps for a single voice channel.
PCM Example
Quantization
 A process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to a
finite number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes of flat-top
samples to a manageable number of levels).
 For example, a sine wave with a peak amplitude of 5V varies
between +5V and -5V passing through every possible amplitudes
in between. A PCM code could have only eight bits, or 256
combinations. To convert samples of a sine wave to PCM requires
some rounding off.
 With quantization, the total voltage range is subdivided into a
smaller number of subranges, as shown in Table 4.1
Cont’d...
Analog input
signal

Sample pulse

PAM signal

PCM code
Figure 4.2.1
Cont’d
 1st sample (occurs at t1) :
 Input voltage=+2V.
 PCM code = 110
 No quantization error
 2nd sample (occurs at t2) :
 input voltage=-1V.
 PCM code = 001
 No quantization error
 3rd sample (occurs at t3):
 Input voltage=+2.6V
 Since no PCM code for +2.6V, magnitude of sample is rounded off
to the nearest amplitude,+3V
 PCM code = 111
 Quantization error = 0.4V
Example 4.2.2
For the PCM coding scheme in Figure 4.2.1, determine the quantized
voltage, quantization error(Qe), and PCM code for the analog sample
voltage of +1.07V.

Solution:
a)Quantized level=sample voltage/resolution
= +1.07/1
= 1.07
= 1V (rounded off to the nearest quantization level)
b)Quantization error = original sample voltage – quantized level
= 1.07 – 1=0.07

c) PCM code for +1=101

 QUANTIZATION ERROR

A difference between the exact value of the analog signal &

the nearest quantization level.
Types of Quantization

Midtread Midrise
Types of Quantizer
1. Uniform type : The levels of the quantized amplitude are uniformly
spaced.
2. Non-uniform type : The levels are not uniform.
Dynamic Range (DR)

 Ratio of the largest possible magnitude/smallest possible magnitude

(other than 0V) that can be decoded by DAC in receiver.

Vmax Vmax
DR  
Vmin resolution

 In dB:
DR(dB)  20 log( DR)
 Where
 DR = absolute value of dynamic range
 Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude
 Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
 n = number of bits in the PCM code
 The number of bits used for a PCM code depends on dynamic
range.
2 n 1  DR
 For a minimum number of bits:

2 n 1  DR
where n=number of bits in a PCM code(excluding sign bit)
DR=absolute value of dynamic range
Example 4.2.3
For a PCM system with following parameters :
Maximum analog input frequency = 4kHz
Maximum decoded voltage at receiver =±2.55V
Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB
Determine:
a) Minimum sample rate
b) Minimum number of bits used in PCM code
c) Resolution
d) Quantization error

Solution :
a) Minimum sample rate, fs
fs  2 fa
 2(4k )  8kHz
b) Dynamic range (absolute value):
Vmax
46dB  20 log
Vmin
Vmax
2.3  log
Vmin
Vmax
10 2.3 
Vmin
DR  199.5
Minimum no. of bits, n:
log(199.5  1)
n  7.63
log 2
 8bits
Since amplitude range is ±2.55V, one additional bit (sign bit is
required. Total number of bits =9 bits.
c) Resolution:
Vmax 2.55 2.55
resolution     0.01V
2  1 2  1 256  1
n 8
a) Maximum quantization error:

resolution 0.01
Qe    0.005V
2 2
Example 1
1. Calculate the dynamic range for a linear
PCM system using 16-bit quantizing.
2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM
code if the DR = 192.6 dB
 Coding Efficiency
A numerical indication of how efficiently
a PCM code is utilized.
The ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain dynamic
range to the actual number of PCM bits
used.
Minimum number of bits (including sign bit)
Coding Efficiency   100
Actual number of bits (including sign bit)
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio (SQR)
 The worst possible SQR occurs when the input signal is at its minimum
amplitude (101 or 001).
 The worst-case voltage SQR
resolution V
SQR(min)   lsb  2
Qe Vlsb / 2

 For PCM code shown in Figure 4.2.1 :

1
SQR(min)  2
0.5
In dB :
SQR(min)  20 log 2  6dB

 SQR for a maximum input signal

Vmax
SQR(max) 
Qe
 For a maximum amplitude input signal of 3V;
Vmax 3
SQR(max)   6
Qe 0.5
In dB :
SQR(max)  20 log 6  15.6dB

 The signal power-to-quantizing noise power ratio

average signal power
SQR( dB )  10 log
average quantization noise power
v2  v2 
 10 log q2
R
 10 log  q 2 
( 12 )  12 
R
Where R =resistance (ohm)
v = rms signal voltage
q = quantization interval
v2
2
R = average signal power (W)
( q 12)  average quantization noise power(W)
R
Example 2
1. Calculate the SQR (dB) if the input signal = 2 Vrms
and the quantization noise magnitudes = 0.02 V.
2. Determine the voltage of the input signals if the SQR
= 36.82 dB and q =0.2 V.
Effect of Non-Linear Coding
Nonlinear Encoding

 Quantization levels not evenly spaced. The step size

increases with the amplitude of the input signal.

 Reduces overall signal distortion

 Can also be done by companding

Companding
• The process of compressing and then expanding.
• The higher amplitude analog signals are compressed (amplified less
than lower amplitude signals) prior to transmission and then
expanded(amplified more than lower amplitude signals in receiver).
• Improving the DR of a communication system.
Companding Functions
Method of Companding
 For the compression, two laws are adopted: the -law in US and Japan
and the A-law in Europe.

 -law Vmax= Max uncompressed

Vmax ln(1   Vin Vmax ) analog input voltage
Vout 
ln(1   ) Vin= amplitude of the input
signal at a particular of
 A-law instant time
Vout= compressed output
 A Vin Vmax V 1
 Vmax 0  in  amplitude
 1  ln A Vout A
Vout  A, = parameter define the
 1  ln( A Vin
Vmax ) 1 Vin amount of compression
 1
 1  ln A A Vout
 The typical values used in practice are: =255 and A=87.6.
 After quantization the different quantized levels have to be
represented in a form suitable for transmission. This is done via an
encoding process.
Example 3
A companding system with µ = 255 used
to compand from 0V to 15 V sinusoid
signal. Draw the characteristic of the
typical system.
Draw an 8 level non-uniform quantizer
characteristic that corresponds to the
mentioned µ.
Cont’d...

μ-law A-law
 PCM Line Speed

 The data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out of the
PCM encoder onto the transmission line.

samples bits
line speed  X
second sample
 Where
 Line speed = the transmission rate in bits per second
 Sample/second = sample rate, fs
 Bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM code
Example 4
For a single PCM system with a sample
rate fs = 6000 samples per second and a 7
bits compressed PCM code, calculate the
line speed.
 Virtues & Limitation of PCM

The most important advantages of PCM are:

◦ Robustness to channel noise and
interference.
◦ Efficient regeneration of the coded signal
along the channel path.
◦ Efficient exchange between BT and SNR.
◦ Uniform format for different kind of base-
band signals.
◦ Flexible TDM.
 Cont’d…
◦ Secure communication through the use of special
modulation schemes of encryption.
◦ These advantages are obtained at the cost of
more complexity and increased BT.
◦ With cost-effective implementations, the cost
issue no longer a problem of concern.
◦ With the availability of wide-band communication
channels and the use of sophisticated data
compression techniques, the large bandwidth is
not a serious problem.
Time-Division Multiplexing
This technique combines time-domain
samples from different message signals
(sampled at the same rate) and
transmits them together across the
same channel.

The multiplexing is performed using a

commutator (switch). At the receiver a
decommutator (switch) is used in
synchronism with the commutator to
demultiplex the data.
Cont’d…
 TDM system is very sensitive to symbol dispersion, that
is, to variation of amplitude with frequency or lack of
proportionality of phase with frequency. This problem
may be solved through equalization of both magnitude
and phase.

 One of the methods used to synchronize the operations

of multiplexing and demultiplexing is to organize the
multiplexed stream of data as frames with a special
pattern. The pattern is known to the receiver and can be
detected very easily.
Block diagram of TDM-PCM communication
system
 An audio signal with a frequency from 4 kHz to 8 kHz and a peak
to peak voltage of 25.5 V is being sampled at a rate of 10% higher
than minimum sampling frequency of Nyquist rate. A sampled
signal is then being quantized with minimum step size of 0.1 V.
Determine the :
i) sampling frequency used,
ii) quantization level used,
iii) no. of bits used to encode the signal,and
iv) quantization noise
END OF PART 2.2