Corrosion of embedded metal

(Carbonation-induced and chloride-induced corrosion)

Uniform corrosion Localized corrosion

Metal Metal

Prabha Mohandoss Ph.D.

CEPE12 – Maintenance and Rehabilitation of Structures
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Trichy 620015
Courtesy: Some images are sourced from the internet for demonstration purposes.
Outline of
Module on corrosion of embedded metal
 Significance
 Fundamentals of corrosion
 Carbonation-induced corrosion
 Chloride-induced corrosion
 Different types of steel reinforcement and precautions
to be taken
 Corrosion in prestressed concrete
Two major types of corrosion in concrete
structures
 Carbonation-induced corrosion Uniform corrosion

Metal Metal

 Chloride-induced corrosion Localized corrosion

Metal Metal
 Service life of structures exposed to
carbon dioxide
Corrosion-free Initiation phase Propagation phase Repair
phase
starts
Damage level

Maximum allowable damage level here

CO2,surface
Cover
KCO2 , m
depth Corrosion
initiation

pHthreshold
Exposure Time

Quantifying the synergistic effects of various parameters on service life will help
select durable material combinations/systems.
Typical locations, where carbonation-
induced corrosion can occur (cont’d.)

60 – 70 % relative humidity
Typical locations, where carbonation-
induced corrosion can occur (cont’d.)

http://travel.paintedstork.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/coonoor_railway_station-150x150.jpg  
Mechanisms of carbonation and
carbonation-induced corrosion
CO2 CO2

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

Uniform corrosion
Carbonation-induced corrosion

 Initially
• CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
• H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + 2•H2O
 Later, C-S-H will liberate CaO, which will carbonate as follows.
• H2CO3 + CaO  CaCO3 + H2O
CO2 CO2
 This leads to a reduced pH
• passive layer is unstable
 This results in active corrosion Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
of the embedded steel
- Uniform corrosion
Carbonation depth can be assessed using
phenolphthalein indicator
 Severe when the relative humidity is ~ 60 to 70%
This steel is about to start corroding

NOTE: Rebars should NOT be cut while

extracting cores for condition assessment
When sheltered, concrete can experience
faster carbonation than when unsheltered
 Natural Carbonation at 0.04 % CO2
 Humidity and temperature conditions

100 ×100 × 500 mm prisms

Sheltered Unsheltered
 Service life of structures exposed to
chlorides
Corrosion-free Initiation phase Propagation phase Repair
phase
starts
Damage level

Maximum allowable damage level here

Clsurface
Cover
Dchloride , m
depth Corrosion
initiation

Clthreshold
Exposure Time

Quantifying the synergistic effects of various parameters on service life will help
select durable material combinations/systems.
 Typical locations, where chloride-induced
corrosion can occur…
 Seawater, marine conditions

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_yptpUKVMiUA/TPTYA-vKVMI/AAAAAAAAAFA/-UJBP3VaWbw/s1600/mkss.jpg
https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQZLZqavYGi6AfxsOpeJjYELi7_owNUy7klqsm5HMvAogrMCpnI
Typical locations where chloride-induced
corrosion can occur…
 Air-borne chlorides (structures near and facing sea)
Typical locations where chloride-induced
corrosion can occur…
 A few kilometres away from the sea shore
• Elevated, pedestrian walkway with severe corrosion
• Just a cosmetic covering of tiled floor on top
Typical locations where chloride-induced
corrosion can occur…
 Chemical plant with chloride-rich local environment
Typical locations where chloride-induced
corrosion can occur…
 Use of chloride-rich sand and water can cause early
corrosion (even within 5 years)
Mechanisms of chloride-induced corrosion

Cl - Cl - Cl - Cl -

Flaws in passive layer Multiple corrosion pits

(high chloride content)
Mechanisms of chloride-induced corrosion

FeCl2 + 2H2O  2HCl + Fe (OH)2

Concrete
1 O2  H 2O  2e  2OH
  Fe 2+ + 2Cl -  FeCl2 2H + + 2 Cl -
2
2e-
2e   Fe 2  Fe

The process is regenerating and instead of spreading along the bar,

corrosion continues at local anodes and deep pits are formed.
Pitting corrosion on strands and deformed
bars due to chloride attack
 7-wire strand

 Deformed bar
Chloride threshold of various steels in
OPC systems
Critical Chloride Threshold Value, (lb/yd )

25 15

Critical Chloride Threshold Value, (kg/m )

3

This can change as a function of

20 the cementitious material cover. 12

15 9

10 6

5 3

0
0

3
A706 A615 Microcomposite SS304 SS316

Pillai (2003)
Chloride threshold can be increased by
using bipolar corrosion inhibiting admixtures
O2 H2O Cl-

Bipolar inhibitors can prevent Fe  Fe 2  2e 

both anodic and cathodic
1
reactions from happening. O2  H 2O  2e   2(OH ) 
2
Effect of w/c ratio on performance of
bipolar inhibitor

No change
at high w/c

0% 0.5% 1% 0% 1%

w/c = 0.4 w/c = 0.6

% bwoc : % by weight of cement
Effect of inhibitors on service life

w/b = 0.45
cover depth = 50 mm
Dcl = 8.87E-12 m2/s

The appropriate use of corrosion inhibitors can increase the median

corrosion initiation time by about 2 to 3 times

Karupanasamy and Pillai (2017)

Effects of dosage of inhibitor on
compressive strength must be checked
28-day comp. strength (MPa)

50

45
Amine+Nitrite Inhibitor - A

40

35

30
25

20
No RD-40% RD-20% RD RD+20% RD+40%
inhibitor

Adopting appropriate dosage is very important to

avoid adverse effects on compressive strength and
permeability of concrete
 Effect of dosage of inhibitor on
Water Sorptivity Index (WSI) must be
checked
40
Inhibitor A RD -Recommended Dosage
35
hr)
Water Sorptivity Index (mm/

30

25 Inhibitor B Inhibitor C
20 WSI
Very Poor Quality
(mm/√hr)
15
Poor > 15 Very poor

10 Good
10 - 15 Poor

5 Excellent
6 - 10 Good

0
Control RD Control RD Control RD I <6 Excellent

Mix ID

Dosage of inhibitors influence the durability indices and

should be chosen carefully
Cracks in concrete structures

Baghi (2015)
Cracks in buildings

 Shrinkage cracks in roofs

• Poor mix design and curing practices
 Structural cracks in beams
• Early removal of formworks
Shear and flexural cracks in bridge girders
Shear cracks in prestressed concrete
girders
Carbonation along the crack can lead to
accelerated/localized corrosion

Carbon dioxide, chlorides,

oxygen and moisture can
ingress through the cracks
and lead to localized
corrosion at/near the crack tip

Location of
accelerated
corrosion

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dante_Fratta/publication/272418013/figure/fig1/AS:652610365317129@1532605844517/Example-of-concrete-carbonation-
clear-surface-in-a-vertical-crack-46.png
ACI 224R-90 tolerable crack widths
w

Tolerable
Service Condition crack width Cover
(mm) Depth
Dry air, protective 0.41
membrane

Humidity, moist air, soil 0.3

w

De-icing chemicals 0.18

Ensure
Adequate
Seawater and seawater 0.15
Cover
spray; wetting and drying
Depth

Water-retaining structures 0.10

ACI 224R-90 Diameter of human hair ~0.1 mm

Deterioration of housing building and
exposed rebars

Courtesy: Abishesk, B.tech (2018-2022), NITT.

Summary

 Carbonation reduces the pH of the concrete pore

solution and causes uniform corrosion
• Critical pH threshold for corrosión initiation can be ≈ 9
 Chlorides can cause localized/pitting corrosión
• Critical chloride threshold is a function of both steel and
cementitious system
• Corrosion inhibiting admixtures can enhance the chloride
threshold
 Moisture and oxygen are necessary to sustain
corrosion
 Cracks can accelerate the ingress of deleterious
elements and cause accelerated/localized corrosion
References
 Li, F., Yuan, Y., and Li, C. (2011), Corrosion propagation of prestressing steel
strands in concrete subject to chloride attack, Construction and Building
Materials, 25, pp. 3878-3885.
 Pillai, R. G. (2003), Electrochemical characterization and time-variant structural
reliability assessment of post-tensioned, segmental concrete bridges, Ph. D.
dissertation, Zachry Dept. of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University.
 Karupanasamy, J., and Pillai, R. G. (2017), A short-term test method to
determine the chloride threshold of steel–cementitious systems with corrosion
inhibiting admixtures, Materials and Structures, 5050: 205.
https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-017-1071-1.
 Baghi, H. (2015), Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams with
SHCC-FRP panels, Ph.D. dissertation, Universidade do Minho Escola de
Engenhari.
 ACI 224R-01, Control of cracks in concrete structures.
Journals
 Indian Concrete Journal
 Indian Concrete Institute
 Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India): Series A
 Cement and Concrete Research
 Cement and concrete composites
 ACI Materials Journal
 ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering
 Materials and Structures
 Concrete International
 Magazine of Concrete Research
 Journal of Non-Destructive Evaluation
 NDT & E International
Professional Societies
 ICI – Indian Concrete Institute
• https://www.indianconcreteinstitute.org
 ACI – American Concrete Institute
• https://www.concrete.org/
 ICACI – India Chapter of American Concrete Institute
• https://icaci.com/
 ASCE – American Society of Civil Engineers
• https://www.asce.org/
 RILEM - Reunion Internationale des Laboratoires et Experts des Materiaux, Systemes
de Construction et Ouvrages
• International Union of Laboratories and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems
and Structures
• https://www.rilem.net/
 NACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
• https://nace.org
 ICE - The Institution of Civil Engineers (India)
• http://www.ice.net.in/