Thermal

Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

Dr.
Dr.John
JohnR.R.Jensen
Jensen
Department
DepartmentofofGeography
Geography
University
University of SouthCarolina
of South Carolina
Columbia,
Columbia,SC SC29208
29208

Jensen, 2008
Jensen, 2008
Selected
Selected Applications
Applications
of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

Jensen, 2008
Jensen, 2008
Selected
Selected Applications
Applications
of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

Jensen, 2008
Jensen, 2008
Nighttime
Nighttime Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Imagery
Imagery of
of an
an Airport
Airport

Jensen, 2008
Jensen, 2008
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
RemoteSensing
Sensing

Thermal
Thermalinfrared
infraredenergy
energyisisemitted
emittedfrom
fromallallobjects
objectsthat
thathave
haveaa
temperature
temperaturegreater
greaterthan
thanabsolute
absolutezero.
zero.Therefore,
Therefore,all allfeatures
featureswe we
encounter
encounterin inthe
thelandscape
landscapeon onaatypical
typicalday
day(Sun,
(Sun,vegetation,
vegetation,soil,
soil,rocks,
rocks,
water,
water,people)
people)emit
emitthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation.
radiation.
••Humans
Humanssensesensethermal
thermalenergy
energyprimarily
primarilythrough
throughthe thesense
senseofoftouch.
touch.
Our
Oureyes
eyescannot
cannotdetect
detectdifferences
differencesin inthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredenergy
energybecause
because
they
theyare
areprimarily
primarilysensitive
sensitiveto toshort
shortwavelength
wavelengthvisible
visiblelight
lightfrom
from0.40.4
mmto 0.7m.
to0.7 m.Our
Oureyeseyesare
arenot
notsensitive
sensitiveto tothe
thereflective
reflectiveinfrared
infrared(0.7
(0.7
3.0m)
--3.0 m)or orthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredenergy
energy(3.0
(3.0--1414m)m)..
••Engineers
Engineershavehavedeveloped
developeddetectors
detectorsthat
thatare
aresensitive
sensitivetotothermal
thermal
infrared
infraredradiation.
radiation.These
Thesethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredsensors
sensorsallow
allowhumans
humansto to
sense
senseaapreviously
previouslyinvisible
invisibleworld
worldas asthey
theymonitor
monitorthe thethermal
thermal
characteristics
characteristicsof ofthe
thelandscape.
landscape.
 Fundamental
Fundamental Properties
Properties of
of
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Radiation
Radiation
The
Thethree
threebasic
basicways
waysin
inwhich
whichenergy
energycan
canbe
betransferred:
transferred:

••Conduction
Conductionoccurs
occurswhen
whenone
onebody
body(molecule
(moleculeororatom)
atom)transfers
transfersits
its
kinetic
kineticenergy
energyto
toanother
anotherby
bycolliding
collidingwith
withit.
it.This
Thisisishow
howaapan
panisisheated
heated
on
onaastove.
stove.

••Convection
Convectionoccurs
occurswhen
whenthethekinetic
kineticenergy
energyof
ofbodies
bodiesisistransferred
transferredfrom
from
one
oneplace
placeto
toanother
anotherby
byphysically
physicallymoving
movingthethebodies.
bodies.An
Anexample
exampleisisthe
the
convectional
convectionalheating
heatingof
ofair
airin
inthe
theatmosphere
atmospherein inthe
theearly
earlyafternoon.
afternoon.

••The
Thetransfer
transferof
ofenergy
energyby
byelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiationisisof
ofprimary
primaryinterest
interest
to
toremote
remotesensing
sensingbecause
becauseititisisthe
theonly
onlyform
formof
ofenergy
energytransfer
transferthat
thatcan
can
take
takeplace
placein
inaavacuum
vacuumsuch
suchas asthe
theregion
regionbetween
betweenthe
theSun
Sunand
andthe
theEarth.
Earth.
 How
How isis Energy
Energy Transferred?
Transferred?

Energy
Energymaymaybebetransferred
transferredthree
threeways:
ways:conduction
conduction, ,convection
convection, ,and
andradiation
radiation. .a)a)Energy
Energy
may
maybe beconducted
conducteddirectly
directlyfrom
fromone
oneobject
objecttotoanother
anotheras
aswhen
whenaapanpanisisinindirect
directphysical
physical
contact
contactwith
withaahot
hotburner.
burner.b)b)The
TheSun
Sunbathes
bathesthetheEarth’s
Earth’ssurface
surfacewith
withradiant
radiantenergy
energy
causing
causingthe
theair
airnear
nearthe
theground
groundtotoincrease
increaseinintemperature.
temperature.The
Theless
lessdense
denseair airrises,
rises,
creating
Jensen
Jensen 2005convectional
2005
creating convectionalcurrents
currentsininthe
theatmosphere.
atmosphere.c)c)Electromagnetic
Electromagneticenergy
energyininthe theform
form
ofofelectromagnetic
electromagneticwaves
wavesmaymaybebetransmitted
transmittedthrough
throughthe
thevacuum
vacuumof ofspace
spacefromfromthetheSun
Sun
totothe
theEarth.
Earth.
 History
History of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

••The
Theastronomer
astronomerSirSirFrederick
FrederickWilliam
WilliamHerschel
Herschel(1738-1822)
(1738-1822)discovered
discovered
the
theinfrared
infraredportion
portionof
ofthe
theelectromagnetic
electromagneticspectrum
spectrumin in1800
1800described
describedin
in
his
hisfamous
famouspaper
paper““Investigations
Investigationsof
ofthe
thePowers
Powersof ofthe
thePrismatic
PrismaticColours
Colours
to
toHeat
Heatand
andIlluminate
IlluminateObjects:
Objects:with
withRemarks
Remarks.”.”

••In
In1879,
1879,S.
S.P.
P.Langley
Langleybegan
beganaaresearch
researchprogram
programtotofind
findaasuperior
superior
radiation
radiationdetector.
detector.One
Oneyear
yearlater
laterhe
heinvented
inventedthe
thebolometer
bolometerthat
thatwas
wasable
able
to
toobtain
obtainmeasurable
measurabletemperature
temperaturevariations
variationsof
of1/10,000
1/10,000˚C.
˚C.

••In
InWorld
WorldWar
WarI,I,S.
S.O.
O.Hoffman
Hoffmancould
coulddetect
detectmen
menatat120
120m
mand
andaircraft.
aircraft.

••In
Inthe
the1930s,
1930s,Germany
Germanydeveloped
developedthetheKiel
Kielsystem
systemfor
fordiscriminating
discriminating
between
betweenbombers
bombersand
andnight
nightfighters.
fighters.
Sir
SirFrederick
FrederickWilliam
WilliamHerschel
Herschel
(1738-1822)
(1738-1822)discovered
discoveredthethe
infrared
infraredportion
portionof
ofthe
the
electromagnetic
electromagneticspectrum
spectruminin
1800
1800(courtesy,
(courtesy,Herschel
HerschelSpace
Space
Observatory,
Observatory,NASA
NASAJet Jet
Propulsion
PropulsionLaboratory).
Laboratory).

Jensen,
Jensen,2008
2008
 History
History of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

••The
Thesingle
singlemost
mostimportant
importantdevelopment
developmentinininfrared
infraredtechnology
technologywas
was
the
thedevelopment
developmentofofthe
thedetector
detectorelement
elementby
bynations
nationsatatwar
warduring
during
World
WorldWar
WarII.
II.Early
Earlyinfrared
infrareddetectors
detectorswere
werelead
leadsalt
saltphotodetectors
photodetectors..

••Now
Nowwe wehave
havevery
veryfast
fastdetectors
detectorsconsisting
consistingof
ofmercury-doped
mercury-doped
germanium
germanium(Ge:Hg),
(Ge:Hg),indium
indiumantimonide
antimonide(InSb)
(InSb)and
andother
othersubstances
substances
that
thatare
arevery
veryresponsive
responsivetotoinfrared
infraredradiation.
radiation.We
Wealso
alsohave
havecomputers
computers
to
torapidly
rapidlyprocess
processand
anddisplay
displaythe
thethermal
thermalradiometric
radiometricmeasurements.
measurements.

••In
In1968,
1968,the
thegovernment
governmentdeclassified
declassifiedthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensing
sensing
systems
systemsthat
thatdid
didnot
notexceed
exceedaacertain
certainspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionand
andtemperature
temperature
sensitivity.
sensitivity.
 History
History of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

••The
Thefirst
firstdeclassified
declassifiedsatellite
satelliteremote
remotesensor
sensordata
datawere
werecollected
collectedby
bythe
the
U.
U.S.
S.Television
TelevisionIR IROperational
OperationalSatellite
Satellite((TIROS
TIROS))launched
launchedin
in1960
1960..The
The
coarse
coarseresolution
resolutionthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata
datawere
wereideal
idealfor
formonitoring
monitoringregional
regional
cloud
cloudpatterns
patternsand
andfrontal
frontalmovement.
movement.

••NASA
NASAlaunched
launchedthetheHeat
HeatCapacity
CapacityMapping
MappingMission
Mission((HCCM
HCCM))on onApril
April
26,
26,1978
1978that
thatobtained
obtained600
600xx600
600m mspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionthermal
thermalinfrared
infrared
data
data(10.5 12.6m)
(10.5--12.6 m)both
bothday
day(1:30
(1:30pm)
pm)and
andnight
night(2:30
(2:30am).
am).This
Thiswas
was
one
oneof
ofthe
thefirst
firstscientifically
scientificallyoriented
oriented(geology)
(geology)thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredsystems.
systems.

••NASA’s
NASA’sNimbus
Nimbus77launched
launchedon onOctober
October23,
23,1978
1978had
hadaaCoastal
CoastalZone
Zone
Color
ColorScanner
Scanner((CZCS
CZCS))that
thatincluded
includedaathermal
thermalinfrared
infraredsensor
sensorfor
for
monitoring
monitoringsea-surface
sea-surfacetemperature.
temperature.
 History
History of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

••In
In1980,
1980,NASA
NASAandandthe
theJet
JetPropulsion
PropulsionLaboratory
Laboratorydeveloped
developedthe
the
thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredmultispectral
multispectralscanner
scanner((TIMS
TIMS))that
thatacquires
acquiresthermal
thermal
infrared
infraredenergy
energyin
insix
sixbands
bandsatatwavelength
wavelengthintervals
intervalsof <1.0m.
of<1.0 m.

••Landsat
LandsatThematic
ThematicMapper
Mapper44andand55sensors
sensorswere
werelaunched
launchedon
onJuly
July16,
16,
1982
1982and
andMarch
March1,1,1984,
1984,respectively,
respectively,and
andcollected
collected120
120xx120
120mm
thermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata
data(10.4 12.5m)
(10.4--12.5 m)along
alongwith
withtwo
twobands
bandsof
ofmiddle
middle
infrared
infrareddata.
data.

••Today,
Today,the
theNOAA
NOAAGeostationary
GeostationaryOperational
OperationalEnvironmental
EnvironmentalSatellite
Satellite
((GOES
GOES))collects
collectsthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata
dataatataaspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionof
of88xx88
km
kmfor
forweather
weatherprediction.
prediction.Full-disk
Full-diskimages
imagesof ofthe
theearth
earthare
areobtained
obtained
every
every30
30minutes
minutesboth
bothday
dayand
andnight
nightby
bythe
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredsensor.
sensor.
 History
History of
of Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

••The
TheNOAA
NOAAAdvanced
AdvancedVeryVeryHigh
HighResolution
ResolutionRadiometer
Radiometer
((AVHRR
AVHRR))collects
collectsthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredlocal
localarea
areacoverage
coverage(LAC)
(LAC)
data
dataatat1.1
1.1xx1.1
1.1km
kmand
andglobal
globalarea
areacoverage
coverage(GAC)
(GAC)atat44xx44
km.
km.The
Theroutine
routinecollection
collectionof
ofthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata
dataare
areaapart
part
of
ofeach
eachperson’s
person’sdaily
dailylife
lifeas
aswe
wewatch
watchthe
thenightly
nightlyweather
weather
report.
report.
 Earth
Earth Observing
Observing System
System -- Terra
Terra Instruments
Instruments
ASTER
ASTER--Advanced
AdvancedSpaceborne
SpaceborneThermal
ThermalEmission
Emissionand
andReflection
ReflectionRadiometer
Radiometer

Spectral
SpectralRange
Range VNIR
VNIR0.52 0.86m,
0.52––0.86 m,SWIR
SWIR1.6 2.43m,
1.6--2.43 m,TIR 12mm
TIR88--12
Spatial
SpatialResolution
Resolution 15
15mm(VNIR
(VNIR::33bands)
bands)
30
30mm(SWIR:
(SWIR:66bands)
bands)
90
90mm(TIR:
(TIR:55bands)
bands)
Jensen,
Jensen,2000
2000
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Radiation
Radiation Principles
Principles

••An
Ananalyst
analyst cannot
cannotinterpret
interpretaathermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimage
imageas
asififititwere
werean
an
aerial
aerialphotograph
photographororaanormal
normalimage
imageproduced
producedbybyaamultispectral
multispectral
scanner
scannerororcharge-coupled
charge-coupleddevice.
device.

••Rather,
Rather,the
theimage
imageanalyst
analystmust
mustthink
thinkthermally
thermally..

••The
Theanalyst
analystmust
mustunderstand
understandhowhowenergy
energyfrom
fromthe
theSun
Sunororfrom
fromthethe
Earth
Earthinteracts
interactswith
withthe
thevarious
variousterrain
terraincomponents
componentsand andhow
howthethe
detectors
detectorsfunction
functionas
asthey
theyrecord
recordthetheterrain’s
terrain’semitted
emittedthermal
thermalinfrared
infrared
electromagnetic
electromagneticradiation.
radiation.Finally,
Finally,the
theanalyst
analystmust
mustunderstand
understandhow how
both
boththe
thesensor
sensorsystem
systemitself
itselfand
andthe
theterrain
terraincan
canintroduce
introducenoise
noiseinto
into
the
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimage
imagethat
thatmight
mightmake
makethethedata
dataless
lessuseful
usefulororlead
lead
to
toincorrect
incorrectimage
imageinterpretation.
interpretation.
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Windows
Windows in
in the
the Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Spectrum
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of aa
Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Airborne
Airborne Across-
Across-
track
track Scanner
Scanner
Pre-dawn
Pre-dawnThermal
ThermalInfrared
InfraredImage
Imageof
ofEffluent
EffluentEntering
Enteringthe
theSavannah
SavannahRiver
RiverSwamp
SwampSystem
System
Savannah
River Savannah
River

2x
2xreduction
reduction March
March31,
31,1981
1981
4:28
4:28am;
am;33xx33mm
 Pre-dawn
Pre-dawn Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Image
Image of
of aa
Residential
Residential Subdivision
Subdivision in
in Forth
Forth Worth,
Worth, Texas
Texas
250
250mmAGL
AGL
11mrad
mradIFOV
IFOV
6:45
6:45am
am
hh ee Jan
Jan10,
10,1980
1980
0.25
0.25xx0.25
0.25mm

ff

gg

aa bb
dd

cc
 Kinetic
Kinetic Heat,
Heat, Temperature,
Temperature, Radiant
Radiant
Energy
Energy and
and Radiant
Radiant Flux
Flux
••The
Theenergy
energyof
ofparticles
particlesof
ofmatter
matterininrandom
randommotion
motionisiscalled
calledkinetic
kineticheat
heat
(also
(alsoreferred
referredto
toas
asinternal,
internal,real,
real,or
ortrue
trueheat).
heat).All
Allobjects
objectshaving
havingaa
temperature
temperatureabove
aboveabsolute
absolutezero
zero(0
(0K;K;-273.16
-273.16˚C;
˚C;and
and-459.69
-459.69˚F)
˚F)exhibit
exhibit
this
thisrandom
randommotion.
motion.When
Whenthese
theseparticles
particlescollide
collidethey
theychange
changetheir
theirenergy
energy
state
stateand
andemit
emitelectromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiationasaspreviously
previouslydiscussed.
discussed.

••The
Theamount
amountof ofheat
heatcan
canbe
bemeasured
measuredin incalories
calories(the
(theamount
amountofofheat
heat
required
requiredtotoraise
raisethethetemperature
temperatureof of11ggofofwater
water11˚C).
˚C).We
Wecan
canmeasure
measure
the
thetrue
truekinetic
kinetictemperature
temperature((TTkinkin))or
orconcentration
concentrationof ofthis
thisheat
heatusing
usingaa
thermometer
thermometer..We Weperform
performthis
thisin insitu
situ(in
(inplace)
place)temperature
temperaturemeasurement
measurement
when
whenwe weare
areill.
ill.We
Wecancanalso
alsomeasure
measurethe thetrue
truekinetic
kineticinternal
internaltemperature
temperature
of
ofsoil
soilor
orwater
waterby byphysically
physicallytouching
touchingthem themwith
withaathermometer.
thermometer.
 Kinetic
Kinetic Heat,
Heat, Temperature,
Temperature,Radiant
Radiant
Energy
Energy and
and Radiant
Radiant Flux
Flux
••Fortunately
Fortunatelyfor forus,
us,an
anobject’s
object’sinternal
internalkinetic
kineticheat
heatisisalso
alsoconverted
convertedto to
radiant
radiantenergy
energy(often
(oftencalled
calledexternal
externalororapparent
apparentenergy).
energy).TheThe
electromagnetic
electromagneticradiation
radiationexiting
exitingananobject
objectisiscalled
calledradiant
radiantfluxflux(())
and
andisismeasured
measuredin inwatts.
watts.The
Theconcentration
concentrationof ofthe
theamount
amountof ofradiant
radiant
flux
fluxexiting
exiting((emitted
emittedfrom)
from)ananobject
objectisisits
itsradiant
radianttemperature
temperature((TTrad ).
rad).

••There
Thereisisusually
usuallyaahighhighpositive
positivecorrelation
correlationbetween
betweenthethetrue
truekinetic
kinetic
temperature
temperatureof ofan
anobject
object((TTkinkin))and
andthe
theamount
amountofofradiant
radiantflux
fluxradiated
radiated
from
fromthetheobject
object((TTrad). Therefore, we can utilize radiometers placed some
rad). Therefore, we can utilize radiometers placed some
distance
distancefrom
fromthe
theobject
objectto tomeasure
measureits itsradiant
radianttemperature
temperaturewhich
which
hopefully
hopefullycorrelates
correlateswellwellwith
withthe theobject’s
object’strue
truekinetic
kinetictemperature.
temperature. This
This
isisthe
thebasis
basisof
ofthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremoteremotesensing
sensing..
 Linear
Linearregression
regressionof ofremote
remote
sensing-derived
sensing-derivedwater watertemperature
temperature
((TTrad))versus true kinetic water
rad versus true kinetic water
temperature
temperature((TTkinkin))obtained
obtainedby
byinin
situ
situmeasurement
measurementfor forfour
foursurvey
survey
years
yearsininfive
fivedifferent
differentstreams
streams
(Torgersen
(Torgersenetetal.,al.,2001;
2001;reprinted
reprinted
with
withpermission
permissionfrom
fromElsevier).
Elsevier).

Jensen,
Jensen,2008
2008
Forward-looking
Forward-lookinginfrared
infrared(FLIR)
(FLIR)
imagery
imageryofoftwo
twosegments
segmentsofofthe
the
Umpqua
UmpquaRiver
RiverBasin
Basindisplayed
displayedalong
along
with
withnatural-color
natural-colorvideography
videography
obtained
obtainedatatthe
thesame
sametime
time(courtesy
(courtesyofof
Oregon
OregonDept.
Dept.ofofEnvironmental
Environmental
Quality,
Quality,2003)
2003)
 Kinetic
Kinetic Heat,
Heat, Temperature,
Temperature,
Radiant
Radiant Energy
Energy and
and Radiant
Radiant Flux
Flux
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,thetherelationship
relationshipisisnot
notperfect
perfect,,with
withthe
theremote
remote
measurement
measurementof ofthe
theradiant
radianttemperature
temperaturealways
alwaysbeing
beingslightly
slightly
less
lessthan
thanthe
thetrue
truekinetic
kinetictemperature
temperatureofofthe
theobject
object..This
Thisisisdue
due
to
toaathermal
thermalproperty
propertycalled
calledemissivity
emissivity––to
tobe
bediscussed
discussed
shortly.
shortly.
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Atmospheric
Atmospheric Windows
Windows

••Beyond
Beyondthe
thevisible
visibleregion
regionofofthe
theelectromagnetic
electromagneticspectrum,
spectrum,we
we
encounter
encounterthe
thereflective
reflectiveinfrared
infraredregion
regionfrom
from0.7 3.0m
0.7--3.0 mand
andthe
the
thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredregion
regionfrom 14m
from33--14 m..

••The
Theonly
onlyreason
reasonwe wecancanuse
useremote
remotesensing
sensingdevices
devicesto todetect
detectinfrared
infrared
energy
energyininthese
theseregions
regionsisisbecause
becausethetheatmosphere
atmosphereallows
allowsaaportion
portionof
of
the
theinfrared
infraredenergy
energyto tobe
betransmitted
transmittedfrom
fromthetheterrain
terrainto
tothe
thedetectors.
detectors.
Regions
Regionsthat
thatpass
passenergy
energyarearecalled
calledatmospheric
atmosphericwindows
windows..Regions
Regions
that
thatabsorb
absorbmost
mostof ofthe
theinfrared
infraredenergy
energyarearecalled
calledabsorption
absorptionbandsbands..
Water
Watervapor
vapor(H (H22O),
O),carbon
carbondioxide
dioxide(CO
(CO22),),and
andozone
ozone(O (O33))are
are
responsible
responsibleforformost
mostof ofthe
theabsorption.
absorption.For
Forexample,
example,atmospheric
atmosphericwaterwater
vapor
vapor(H(H22O)
O)absorbs
absorbsmostmostof ofthe
theenergy
energyexiting
exitingthe
theterrain
terrainin inthe
the
region
regionfrom
from55toto77m mmaking
makingititalmost
almostuseless
uselessfor
forremote
remotesensing.
sensing.
Atmospheric
Atmospheric Windows
Windows in
in the
the Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Spectrum

Jensen,
Jensen,2008
2008
 Reflective
Reflective Infrared
Infrared Detectors
Detectors

••Remote
Remotesensors
sensorscan
canbe
beengineered
engineeredto tobe
besensitive
sensitiveto
tothe
theinfrared
infrared
energy
energypresent
presentwithin
withinthe
thereflective
reflectiveinfrared
infrared atmospheric
atmosphericwindows.
windows.

••Film
Filmemulsions
emulsionscan
canbe
bemade
madesensitive
sensitiveto
toreflected
reflectedinfrared
infraredenergy
energyin in
the
thewindow
windowfrom
from0.7 -1.0m
0.7-1.0 m..For
Forexample,
example,Kodak’s
Kodak’s2443
2443color
color
infrared
infraredfilm
filmworks
workswithin
withinthis
thisphotographic
photographicinfrared
infraredregion
regionand
andisisideal
ideal
for
formonitoring
monitoringvegetation
vegetationand
andwater.
water.

••Electro-optical
Electro-opticaldetectors
detectorsononLandsat
LandsatThematic
ThematicMapper
Mapper44and
and55are
are
sensitive
sensitiveto
tothe
thereflective
reflectiveinfrared
infraredwindows
windowsfrom
from1.55 1.75m
1.55--1.75 m(TM
(TM
band
band5)5)and
and2.08 2.35m
2.08--2.35 m(TM
(TMband
band7).
7).
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Detectors
Detectors

••Electronic
Electronicdetectors
detectorscan
canalso
alsobe
bemade
madesensitive
sensitivetotophotons
photonsofofthermal
thermal
infrared
infraredradiant
radiantenergy
energyexiting
exitingthe
theterrain
terrainin
inthe
thetwo
twoprimary
primarythermal
thermal
infrared windows:33--55m
infraredwindows: mand 14m
and88--14 m..Sub-orbital
Sub-orbitalthermal
thermalinfrared
infrared
remote
remotesensing
sensingsystems
systemsutilize
utilizethese
thesespectral
spectralbands.
bands.

••The
TheEarth’s
Earth’sozone
ozone(O (O33))layer
layerabsorbs
absorbsmuch
muchof ofthe
thethermal
thermalenergy
energy
exiting
exitingthe
theterrain
terrainininan
anabsorption
absorptionband
bandfrom
fromapproximately 10m.
approximately99--10 m.
Therefore,
Therefore,satellite
satellitethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensing
sensingsystems
systemsusually
usually
only
onlyrecord
recorddata
dataininthe
theregion
regionfrom
from10.5 12.5m
10.5--12.5 mto
toavoid
avoidthe
the
absorption
absorptionband.
band.
 Vertical Aerial Photograph
Vertical Aerial Photograph

Daytime
Daytime Optical
Optical and
and
Nighttime
Nighttime Thermal
science

Thermal
science
buildings library
buildings library

dorms
Infrared
Infrared Imagery
Imagery of
of the
the
University
University of
of South
dorms

South
Carolina
Carolina Campus
Campus
parking
parking

soccer field
a. soccer field
a.
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image
one-dimensional
one-dimensional
relief
relief
displacement
displacement

steam
steam
lines
lines

manhole
manhole
cover
cover
line-of-flight
line-of-flight

steam
steam
April
April26,
26,1981
1981
plant
plant
2x reduction 4:56
4:56amam
b.
11xx11mm
b.
 Thermal
Thermal Radiation
Radiation Laws
Laws
••AAblackbody
blackbody isisaatheoretical
theoreticalconstruct
constructthat
thatabsorbs
absorbsall
allthe
theradiant
radiant
energy
energystriking
strikingititand
andradiates
radiatesenergy
energyatatthe
themaximum
maximumpossible
possiblerate
rateper
per
unit
unitarea
areaatateach
eachwavelength
wavelengthforforany
anygiven
giventemperature.
temperature.

••No
Noobjects
objectsin
innature
natureare
aretrue
trueblackbodies
blackbodies,,however,
however,we wemay
maythink
thinkofof
the
theSun
Sunasasapproximating
approximatingaa6,000
6,000KKblackbody
blackbodyand andthe
theEarth
Earthas
asaa300
300
KKblackbody.
blackbody.IfIfwe
wepointed
pointedaasensor
sensoratataablackbody
blackbodywe wewould
wouldbebeable
able
to
torecord
recordquantitative
quantitativeinformation
informationabout
aboutthethetotal
totalamount
amountof ofradiant
radiant
energy
energyininspecific
specificwavelengths
wavelengthsexiting
exitingthe
theobject
objectand
andthe
thedominant
dominant
wavelength
wavelengthof ofthe
theobject.
object.In
Inorder
orderto
todo
dothis,
this,we
weutilize
utilizetwo
twoimportant
important
physical
physicallaws:
laws:the
theStefan-Boltzmann
Stefan-Boltzmannlaw lawandandWein’s
Wein’sdisplacement
displacementlaw law..
 Stephen
Stephen Boltzmann
Boltzmann Law
Law

The
Thetotal
totalspectral
spectralradiant
radiantflux
fluxexitance
exitance((M Mbb))measured
measuredin inwatts
wattsmm2 leaving
2
leaving
aablackbody
blackbodyisisproportional
proportionalto tothe
thefourth
fourthpower
powerofofits
itstemperature
temperature((TT).).This
This
isisthe
theStefan-Boltzmann
Stefan-Boltzmannlaw lawand
andisisexpressed
expressedas:
as:
M  T
Mbb  T
44

whereisisthe
where theStefan-Boltzmann
Stefan-Boltzmannconstant
constantequaling
equaling5.6697
5.6697xx10 10-8WWm m-2KK-
-8 -2 -

44
mmK,K,and
andTTisistemperature
temperaturein indegrees
degreesKelvin.
Kelvin.The
Thetotal
totalradiant
radiantexitance
exitance
isisthe
theintegration
integrationofofall
allthe
thearea
areaunder
underthe
theblackbody
blackbodyradiation
radiationcurve.
curve.
The
TheSun
Sunproduces
producesmore
morespectral
spectralradiant
radiantexitance
exitance((MMbb))atat6,000
6,000KKthan
thanthe
the
Earth
Earthatat300
300K.
K.As
Asthe
thetemperature
temperatureincreases,
increases,the
thetotal
totalamount
amountof ofradiant
radiant
energy
energymeasured
measuredininwatts
wattsper
permm2(the
2
(thearea
areaunder
underthe
thecurve)
curve)increases
increasesand
and
the
theradiant
radiantenergy
energypeak
peakshifts
shiftsto
toshorter
shorterwavelengths.
wavelengths.
Blackbody
Blackbody Radiation
Radiation
Curves
Curves for
for Several
Several
Objects
Objects including
including the
the
Sun
Sun and
and Earth
Earth
 Wein’s
Wein’s Displacement
Displacement Law
Law

The
Therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthethetrue
truetemperature
temperatureof
ofaablackbody
blackbody((TT))in
in
degrees
degreesKelvin
Kelvinand
andits
itspeak
peakspectral
spectralexitance
exitanceor
ordominant
dominantwavelength
wavelength
((max))isisdescribed
describedby
byWein’s
Wein’sdisplacement
displacementlaw
law::
max

kk 2898
2898 m
m K
K
max 
max 

TT TT

where
wherekkisisaaconstant
constantequaling 2898m
equaling2898 m˚K.
˚K.
 Wein’s
Wein’s Displacement
Displacement Law
Law

For
Forexample,
example,the
theaverage
averagetemperature
temperatureof
ofthe
theEarth
Earthisis300
300KK
(80
(80˚F).
˚F).We
Wecompute
computethetheEarth’s
Earth’sdominant
dominantwavelength
wavelengthas:
as:

kk 2898
2898 m
m K
K
max 
max 
 67m
 99..67 m
TT 300
300K K
 Wein’s
Wein’s Displacement
Displacement Law
Law

The
Theaverage
averagetemperature
temperatureof
ofan
an800
800KKred
redhot
hotobject
objectis:
is:
kk 2898
2898 m
m K
K
max 
max 
 62m
33..62 m
TT 800
800K K
 Wein’s
Wein’s Displacement
Displacement Law
Law

••The
Thedominant
dominantwavelength
wavelengthprovides
providesvaluable
valuableinformation
informationabout
aboutwhich
which
part
partof
ofthe
thethermal
thermalspectrum
spectrumwewemight
mightwant
wanttotosense
sensein.
in.For
Forexample,
example,ifif
we
weare
arelooking
lookingfor
for800
800K Kforest
forestfires
firesthat
thathave
haveaadominant
dominantwavelength
wavelength
of
ofapproximately 3.62m
approximately3.62 mthen
thenthe
themost
mostappropriate
appropriateremote
remotesensing
sensing
system
systemmight
mightbe 3-5m
beaa3-5 mthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddetector.
detector.

••IfIfwe
weare
areinterested
interestedin
insoil,
soil,water,
water,and
androck
rockwith
withambient
ambient
temperatures
temperatureson onthe
theearth’s
earth’ssurface
surfaceof
of300
300K Kand
andaadominant
dominant
wavelength
wavelengthof 9.67m
of9.67 m,,then
thenaathermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddetector
detectoroperating
operatingin
in
the 14m
the88--14 mregion
regionmight
mightbe bemost
mostappropriate.
appropriate.
 Emissivity
Emissivity
••The
Theworld
worldisisnot
notcomposed
composedof ofradiating
radiatingblackbodies.
blackbodies.Rather
Ratherititisis
composed
composedof ofselectively
selectivelyradiating
radiatingbodies
bodiessuch
suchas
asrocks,
rocks,soil,
soil,and
andwater
water
that
thatemit
emitonly
onlyaafraction
fractionof
ofthe theenergy
energyemitted
emittedfrom
fromaablackbody
blackbodyatatthethe
same
sametemperature. Emissivity,,,,isisthe
temperature.Emissivity theratio
ratiobetween
betweenthetheradiant
radiantflux
flux
exiting
exitingaareal-world
real-worldselective
selectiveradiating
radiatingbody
body((M
Mr)r)and
andaablackbody
blackbodyatat
the
thesame
sametemperature
temperature((M Mbb):):
M
M
  rr
M
Mbb
 Emissivity
Emissivity
••All
Allselectively
selectivelyradiating
radiatingbodies
bodieshave
haveemissivities
emissivitiesranging
rangingfrom
from00to to<1
<1
that
thatfluctuate
fluctuatedepending
dependingupon
uponthe
thewavelengths
wavelengthsof
ofenergy
energybeing
being
considered.
considered.AAgraybody
graybodyoutputs
outputsaaconstant
constantemissivity
emissivitythat
thatisisless
lessthan
than
one
oneatatall
allwavelengths.
wavelengths.

••Some
Somematerials
materialslike
likedistilled
distilledwater
waterhave
haveemissivities
emissivitiesclose
closeto
toone
one
(0.99)
(0.99)over
overthe
thewavelength
wavelengthinterval
intervalfrom
from88--1414m.
m.Others
Otherssuch
suchasas
polished
polishedaluminum
aluminum(0.08)
(0.08)and
andstainless
stainlesssteel
steel(0.16)
(0.16)have
havevery
verylow
low
emissivities.
emissivities.
Spectral
Spectral emissivity
emissivity of
of aa
blackbody,
blackbody, aa graybody,
graybody,
and
and aa hypothetical
hypothetical
selective
selective radiator
radiator

Spectral
Spectral radiant
radiant exitance
exitance
distribution
distribution of
of the
the
blackbody,
blackbody, graybody,
graybody,
and
and hypothetical
hypothetical
selective
selective radiator
radiator
Radiant
Radiantenergy
energyexiting
exitingWater,
Water,Granite,
Granite,and
andDunite
Duniteheated
heatedtoto
350
350KKcompared
comparedwith
withaablackbody
blackbodyatatthe
thesame
sametemperature
temperature
 Emissivity
Emissivity
Two
Tworocks
rockslying
lyingnext
nextto
toone
oneanother
anotheron
onthe
theground
groundcould
couldhave
havethe
thesame
same
true
truekinetic
kinetictemperature
temperaturebut
buthave
havedifferent
differentapparent
apparenttemperatures
temperatureswhen
when
sensed
sensedbybyaathermal
thermalradiometer
radiometersimply
simplybecause
becausetheir
theiremissivities
emissivitiesare
are
different.
different.The
Theemissivity
emissivityofofan
anobject
objectmay
maybe beinfluenced
influencedby
byaanumber
number
factors,
factors,including:
including:
••color
color----darker
darkercolored
coloredobjects
objectsare
areusually
usuallybetter
betterabsorbers
absorbersand
and
emitters
emitters(i.e.
(i.e.they
theyhave
haveaahigher
higheremissivity)
emissivity)than
thanlighter
lightercolored
coloredobjects
objects
which
whichtend
tendto toreflect
reflectmore
moreofofthe
theincident
incidentenergy.
energy.
••surface
surfaceroughness
roughness----the
thegreater
greaterthe
thesurface
surfaceroughness
roughnessof ofan
anobject
object
relative
relativetotothe
thesize
sizeof
ofthe
theincident
incidentwavelength,
wavelength,the
thegreater
greaterthe
thesurface
surface
area
areaofofthe
theobject
objectand
andpotential
potentialfor
forabsorption
absorptionand
andre-emission
re-emissionofof
energy.
energy.
 Emissivity
Emissivity
••moisture
moisturecontent
content----the
themore
moremoisture
moisturean
anobject
objectcontains,
contains,the
thegreater
greaterits
its
ability
abilityto
toabsorb
absorbenergy
energyandandbecome
becomeaagood
goodemitter.
emitter.Wet
Wetsoil
soilparticles
particles
have
haveaahigh
highemissivity
emissivitysimilar
similarto
towater.
water.
••compaction
compaction----the
thedegree
degreeof
ofsoil
soilcompaction
compactioncan
caneffect
effectemissivity.
emissivity.
••field-of-view
field-of-view----the
theemissivity
emissivityof
ofaasingle
singleleaf
leafmeasured
measuredwith
withaavery
veryhigh
high
resolution
resolutionthermal
thermalradiometer
radiometerwill
willhave
haveaadifferent
differentemissivity
emissivitythan
thanan
an
entire
entiretree
treecrown
crownviewed
viewedusing
usingaacoarse
coarsespatial
spatialresolution
resolutionradiometer.
radiometer.
••wavelength
wavelength----the
theemissivity
emissivityof
ofan
anobject
objectisisgenerally
generallyconsidered
consideredtotobe
be
wavelength
wavelengthdependent.
dependent.ForForexample,
example,while
whilethetheemissivity
emissivityof
ofan
anobject
objectisis
often
oftenconsidered
consideredtotobe
beconstant
constantthroughout
throughoutthe 14m
the88--14 mregion,
region,its
its
emissivity
emissivityin
inthe -5m
the33-5 mregion
regionmay
maybebedifferent.
different.
 Emissivity
Emissivity

••viewing
viewingangle
angle--the
theemissivity
emissivityof
ofan
anobject
objectcan
canvary
varywith
withsensor
sensor
viewing
viewingangle.
angle.
We
Wemust
musttake
takeinto
intoaccount
accountan anobject’s
object’semissivity
emissivitywhen
whenweweuse
useour
our
remote
remoteradiant
radianttemperature
temperaturemeasurement
measurementto tomeasure
measurethe
theobject’s
object’strue
true
kinetic
kinetictemperature.
temperature.This
Thisisisdone
doneby
byapplying
applyingKirchoff’s
Kirchoff’sradiation
radiationlaw.
law.
 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law

••Remember
Rememberthat thatthe
theterrain
terrainintercepts
interceptsincident
incident(incoming)
(incoming)radiant
radiantflux
flux
(
(i).i).This
Thisincident
incidentenergy
energyinteracts
interactswithwithterrain
terrainmaterials.
materials.The
Theamount
amount
of
ofradiant
radiantfluxfluxreflected
reflectedfrom
fromthe
thesurface
surface( (r), the amount of radiant
r), the amount of radiant
flux
fluxabsorbed
absorbedby bythe
thesurface
surface((),),and
andthe
theamount
amountof ofradiant
radiantflux
flux
transmitted
transmittedthrough
throughthe thesurface
surface(())can
canbebecarefully
carefullymeasured
measuredas aswe
we
apply
applythe theprinciple
principleofofconservation
conservationof ofenergy
energyand andattempt
attempttotokeep
keeptrack
track
of
ofwhat
whathappens
happensto toall
allthe
theincident
incidentenergy.
energy.TheThegeneral
generalequation
equationfor
forthe
the
interaction
interactionof ofspectral
spectral() ()radiant
radiantfluxfluxwith
withthetheterrain
terrainis:
is:
11 
ii  
rr 
 

 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law

••Dividing
Dividingeach
eachof
ofthe
thevariables
variablesby
bythe
theoriginal
originalincident
incidentradiant
radiantflux:
flux:

ii  
rr  
  

  

ii  ii  ii  ii
allows
allowsus
usto
torewrite
rewritethe
theinitial
initialequation
equationas:
as:
11 rr  
where
whererrisisspectral
spectralhemispherical
hemisphericalreflectance
reflectanceby bythe terrain,isis
theterrain,
spectral
spectralhemispherical
hemisphericalabsorptance, andisisspectral
absorptance,and spectralhemispherical
hemispherical
transmittance.
transmittance.
 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law
••The
TheRussian
Russianphysicist
physicistKirchoff
Kirchofffound
foundthat
thatin
inthe
theinfrared
infraredportion
portionof
of
the
thespectrum
spectrumthe
thespectral
spectralemissivity
emissivityof ofananobject
objectgenerally
generallyequals
equalsits
its
spectral
spectralabsorptance, i.e.~~..This
absorptance,i.e. Thisisisoften
oftenphrased
phrasedas:
as:
““good
goodabsorbers
absorbersare
aregood
goodemitters
emittersand
and
good
goodreflectors
reflectorsare
arepoor
pooremitters”
emitters”..
Also,
Also,most
mostreal-world
real-worldmaterials
materialsareareusually
usuallyopaque
opaquetotothermal
thermalradiation
radiation
meaning
meaningthat
thatno
noradiant
radiantflux
fluxexits
exitsfrom
fromthe
theother
otherside
sideofofthe
theterrain
terrain
element.
element.Therefore,
Therefore,we
wemay
mayassume transmittance,==00..Substituting
assumetransmittance, Substituting
emissivity
emissivityfor
forabsorptance
absorptanceandandremoving
removingtransmittance
transmittancefrom
fromthe
the
equation
equationyields:
yields: 11 rr 
 


 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law
••This
Thissimple
simplerelationship
relationshipdescribes
describeswhy
whyobjects
objectsappear
appearas asthey
theydodoon
on
thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimagery.
imagery.Because
Becausethetheterrain
terraindoes
doesnot
notlose
loseany
any
incident
incidentenergy
energyto
totransmittance,
transmittance,allallof
ofthe
theenergy
energyleaving
leavingthetheobject
object
must
mustbe beaccounted
accountedfor forby
bythe
theinverse
inverserelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenreflectance
reflectance
(r(r))and emissivity ( ). If reflectivity increases then emissivity must
 and emissivity (). If reflectivity increases then emissivity must
decrease.
decrease.IfIfemissivity
emissivityincreases
increasesthen
thenreflectivity
reflectivitymust
mustdecrease
decrease..For
For
example,
example,waterwaterabsorbs
absorbsalmost
almostall
allincident
incidentenergy
energyandandreflects
reflectsvery
very
little.
little.Therefore,
Therefore,water
waterisisaavery
verygood
goodemitter
emitterandandhas
hasaahigh
highemissivity
emissivity
close
closeto to1.
1.Conversely,
Conversely,aasheet
sheetmetal
metalroof
roofreflects
reflectsmost
mostof ofthe
theincident
incident
energy,
energy,absorbs
absorbsvery
verylittle,
little,yielding
yieldingananemissivity
emissivitymuchmuchlesslessthan
than1.
1.
Therefore,
Therefore,metal
metalobjects
objectssuch
suchasascars,
cars,aircraft,
aircraft,and
andmetal
metalroofs
roofsalmost
almost
always
alwayslooklookvery
verycold
cold(dark)
(dark)ononthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimagery
imagery––theytheyare
are
poor
pooremitters.
emitters.
 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law
••The
Thegoal
goalofofthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensing
sensingisisto
tobe
beable
ableto topoint
pointaa
radiometer
radiometeratatananobject
objectand
andhave
havethetheapparent
apparentradiant
radianttemperature
temperature
recorded
recorded((TTrad) equal the true kinetic temperature of the object (T ).).
rad) equal the true kinetic temperature of the object ( Tkin kin
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,the theradiant
radiantflux
fluxfrom
fromaareal-world
real-worldobject
objectatataagiven
given
temperature
temperatureisisnotnotthe
thesame
sameas asthe
theradiant
radiantflux
fluxfrom
fromaablackbody
blackbodyatatthe the
same
sametemperature
temperaturelargely
largelydue
duetotothe
theeffects
effectsof
ofemissivity
emissivity..Knowing
Knowingthe the
emissivity
emissivitycharacteristics
characteristicsof ofananobject
objectmakes
makesititpossible
possibleto
tomodify
modifythe the
Stefan-Boltzmann
Stefan-Boltzmannlaw law(originally
(originallyapplicable
applicabletotoblackbodies)
blackbodies)so sothat
thatitit
pertains
pertainsto
tothe
thetotal
totalspectral
spectralradiant
radiantflux
fluxof
ofreal-world
real-worldmaterials
materials((M Mr): r):
44
Mrr   TT
M kin
kin

ItIttakes
takesinto
intoaccount
accountthe
thetemperature
temperatureof
ofthe
theobject
objectand
andits
itsemissivity
emissivityto
to
create
createaamore
moreaccurate
accurateestimate
estimateof
ofthe
theradiant
radiantflux
fluxexiting
exitingananobject.
object.
 Kirchoff’s
Kirchoff’s Radiation
Radiation Law
Law

••Thermal
Thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensingsensingsystems
systemsgenerally
generallyrecord
recordthe
the
apparent
apparentradiant
radianttemperature,
temperature,TTrad of the terrain rather than the true
rad of the terrain rather than the true
kinetic
kinetictemperature,
temperature,TTkinkin..IfIfwe
weassume
assumethat thatthe
theincorporation
incorporationof
of
emissivity
emissivityininthe
theprevious
previousequation
equationhas hasimproved
improvedourourmeasurement
measurementto
to
the
thepoint
pointthat: M Mrr ==
TTkinkin 4 and
andweweassume
assumethat
4
that: that

M
Mbb==TTradrad44 and
and

M
Mrr==M
Mbb then,
then,
TTrad
rad
44
=
= 
 T
Tkin
kin
44

Therefore,
Therefore,thetheradiant
radianttemperature
temperatureof ofan
anobject
objectrecorded
recordedby
byaaremote
remote
sensor
sensorisisrelated
relatedto
toits
itstrue
truekinetic
kinetictemperature
temperatureandandemissivity
emissivityby
bythe
the
following
followingrelationship:
relationship:TTrad ==1/41/4TTkin
rad kin
 Thermal
Thermal Properties
Properties of
of Terrain
Terrain

Water,
Water, rocks,
rocks, soil,
soil, vegetation,
vegetation, thethe atmosphere,
atmosphere, and and human
human
tissue
tissue all
all have
have the
the ability
ability to
to conduct
conduct heat
heat directly
directly through
through
them
them((thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity)) onto
onto another
another surface
surface and
and to
to
store
store heat
heat ((thermal
thermal capacity
capacity).). Some
Some materials
materials respond
respond to to
changes
changes in in temperature
temperature more
morerapidly
rapidly or
or slowly
slowly than
than others
others
((thermal
thermal inertia
inertia).).
 Thermal
Thermal Properties
Properties of
of Terrain
Terrain

••Thermal
Thermalconductivity
conductivity((KK))isisthe
therate
ratethat
thatheat
heatwill
willpass
passthrough
throughaa
material
materialand
andisismeasured
measuredas asthethenumber
numberof ofcalories
caloriesthat
thatwill
willpass
pass
through
throughaa1-cm
1-cmcube
cubeof
ofmaterial
materialin in11second
secondwhen
whentwotwoopposite
oppositefaces
faces
are
aremaintained
maintainedatat11˚C
˚Cdifference
differencein intemperature
temperature(cal
(calcm-1
cm-1sec-1
sec-1˚C).
˚C).
The
Theconductivity
conductivityofofaamaterial
materialisisvariable
variabledue
duetotosoil
soilmoisture
moistureand
and
particle
particlesize.
size.Many
Manyrocks
rocksand
andsoils
soilsare
areextremely
extremelypoor
poorconductors
conductorsofof
heat.
heat.
••Thermal
Thermalcapacity
capacity((cc))isisthe
theability
abilityof
ofaamaterial
materialto tostore
storeheat
heat..ItItisis
measured
measuredas asthe
thenumber
numberof ofcalories
caloriesrequired
requiredto toraise
raiseaagram
gramof
ofmaterial
material
(e.g.
(e.g.water)
water)11˚C ˚C(cal
(calg-1
g-1˚C-1).
˚C-1).Water
Waterhas
hasthe
thehighest
highestthermal
thermalcapacity
capacity
(1.00).
(1.00).ItItstores
storesheat
heatvery
verywell wellrelative
relativeto
toall
allthe
theother
othermaterials.
materials.
 Thermal
Thermal Inertia
Inertia

••Thermal
Thermalinertia
inertia((PP))isisaameasurement
measurementof ofthe
thethermal
thermalresponse
responseof ofaa
material
materialto totemperature
temperaturechanges
changesand
andisismeasured
measuredin incalories
caloriesper
persquare
square
centimeter per second square root per degree Celsius (cal cm
centimeter per second square root per degree Celsius (cal cm sec -1/2
-2-2
sec -1/2

˚C
˚C-1).).Thermal
-1
Thermalinertia
inertiaisiscomputed
computedusing
usingthe
theequation:
equation:

PP  K
K  ppcc
where
where K is thermal conductivity, p is density (g cm ),),and
K is thermal conductivity, p is density (g cm -3-3
andccisisthermal
thermal
capacity.
capacity.Density
Densityisisthe
themost
mostimportant
importantproperty
propertyin inthis
thisequation
equation
because
becausethermal
thermalinertia
inertiagenerally
generallyincreases
increaseslinearly
linearlywith
withincreasing
increasing
material
materialdensity.
density.
 Apparent
Apparent Thermal
Thermal Inertia
Inertia
••ItItwould
wouldbe bewonderful
wonderfulififwe wecould
couldremotely
remotelysense
senseeach
eachof
ofthe
theaforementioned
aforementioned
variables
variablesandandthen
thensimply
simplycompute
computethermal
thermalinertia.
inertia.Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,thisthisisisnot
notthe
thecasecase
because
becauseconductivity,
conductivity,density,
density,andandthermal
thermalcapacity
capacitymust
mustall
allbe
bemeasured
measuredininsitu situ. .
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,ititisispossible
possibletotoremotely
remotelysense
senseand
andcompute
computean anapparent
apparentthermal
thermalinertia
inertia
measurement
measurementper perpixel
pixelininthe
thefollowing
followingmanner.
manner.AAthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimage
imageisisacquired
acquired
over
overthetheidentical
identicalterrain
terrainininthe
thenighttime
nighttimeand
andininthe
theearly
earlyafternoon.
afternoon.The Thetwotwoimages
images
are
aregeometrically
geometricallyand andradiometrically
radiometricallyregistered
registeredtotoone
oneanother
anotherandandthe
thechange
changeinin
temperature,
temperature,∆T ∆Tfor
foraaspecific
specificpixel
pixelisisdetermined
determinedby bysubtracting
subtractingthethenighttime
nighttimeapparent
apparent
temperature
temperaturefrom fromthe
thedaytime
daytimeapparent
apparenttemperature.
temperature.TheTheapparent
apparentthermal
thermalinertia
inertia(ATI)
(ATI)
per
perpixel
pixelis:
is:
11 AA
ATI 
ATI
TT
with
withAAbeing
beingthe
thealbedo
albedo(reflectance)
(reflectance)measured
measuredininaavisible
visibleband
bandof
ofthe
thespectrum
spectrumfor
forthe
the
pixel
pixelof
ofinterest.
interest.
 Pre-dawn
Pre-dawnThermal
ThermalInfrared
InfraredImage
Imageof
ofaa
Residential
ResidentialSubdivision
Subdivisionin
inForth
ForthWorth,
Worth,Texas
Texas
250
250mmAGL
AGL
11mrad
mradIFOV
IFOV
6:45
6:45am
am
hh ee Jan
Jan10,
10,1980
1980
0.25
0.25xx0.25
0.25mm

ff

gg

aa bb
dd

cc
 Diurnal
Diurnal Temperature
Temperature Cycle
Cycle of
of Typical
Typical Materials
Materials

••The
Thediurnal
diurnalcyclecycleencompasses
encompasses24 24hours.
hours.Beginning
Beginningatatsunrise,
sunrise,the
theearth
earthbegins
begins
intercepting
interceptingmainly
mainlyshort shortwavelength
wavelengthenergyenergy(0.4 0.7m)
(0.4--0.7 m)from
fromthetheSun.
Sun.From
Fromabout
about
6:00
6:00am
amtoto8:008:00pm,pm,the theterrain
terrainintercepts
interceptsthetheincoming
incomingshortshortwavelength
wavelengthenergy
energyand
and
reflects
reflectsmuch
muchof ofititback
backinto
intothe
theatmosphere
atmospherewherewherewe wecancanuseuseoptical
opticalremote
remotesensors
sensorstoto
measure
measurethe thereflected
reflectedenergy.
energy.However,
However,some someof ofthe
theincident
incidentshort
shortwavelength
wavelengthenergy
energy
isisabsorbed
absorbedby bythe
theterrain
terrainand
andthen
thenre-radiated
re-radiatedback
backinto
intothe
theatmosphere
atmosphereas asthermal
thermal
infrared
infraredlong
longwavelength
wavelengthradiation
radiation(3 14m).
(3--14 m).The
Theoutgoing
outgoinglongwave
longwaveradiation
radiation
reaches
reachesits
itshighest
highestvaluevalueduring
duringthe theday
daywhen
whenthethesurface
surfacetemperature
temperatureisishighest.
highest.This
This
peak
peakusually
usuallylags lagstwo
twototofour
fourhours
hoursafter
afterthe
themidday
middaypeakpeakof ofincoming
incomingshortwave
shortwave
radiation,
radiation,owing
owingtotothe thetime
timetaken
takentotoheat
heatthe
thesoil.
soil.The
Thecontribution
contributionof ofreflected
reflectedshort
short
wavelength
wavelengthenergyenergyand andemitted
emittedlonglongwavelength
wavelengthenergy
energycauses
causesan anenergy
energysurplus
surplustoto
take
takeplace
placeduring
duringthe theday.
day.Both
Bothincoming
incomingand andoutgoing
outgoingshortwave
shortwaveradiation
radiationbecome
become
zero
zeroafter
aftersunset
sunset(except
(exceptfor forlight
lightfrom
fromthethemoon
moonand andstars),
stars),but
butoutgoing
outgoinglongwave
longwave
radiation
radiationcontinues
continuesall allnight.
night.
 Peak
Peak Period
Period ofof Daily
Daily
Outgoing
Outgoing Longwave
Longwave
Radiation
Radiation and
and the
the Diurnal
Diurnal
Radiant
Radiant Temperature
Temperature of of
Soils
Soils and
and Rocks,
Rocks,
Vegetation,
Vegetation, Water,
Water, Moist
Moist
Soil
Soil and
and Metal
Metal Objects
Objects
 Diurnal
DiurnalTemperature
TemperatureCycle
Cycleof
ofTypical
TypicalMaterials
Materials

••IfIfall
allthe
thecurves
curvesfor
forsoils
soilsand
androcks,
rocks,water,
water,vegetation,
vegetation,moist
moistsoil,
soil,and
andmetal
metalobjects
objectslie
lie
exactly
exactlyon ontop
topof
ofone
oneanother,
another,then
thenremote
remotesensing
sensingininthe
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredportion
portionofofthe
the
spectrum
spectrumwould wouldbebeof
ofno
novalue
valuebecause
becauseallallthe
thephenomena
phenomenawould wouldhavehavethe
thesame
same
apparent
apparentradiant
radianttemperature.
temperature.There
Therewould
wouldbe benonocontrast
contrastininthe
theimagery
imagerybetween
betweenthethe
different
differentphenomena.
phenomena.Fortunately,
Fortunately,there
thereare
areonly
onlytwo
twotimes
timesduring
duringthe theday
day(after
(aftersunrise
sunrise
and
andnear
nearsunset)
sunset)when
whensome
somematerials
materialslike
likesoils
soilsand
androcks
rocksandandwater
waterhave
haveexactly
exactlythe
the
same
sameradiant
radianttemperature.
temperature.During
Duringthis
thiscrossover
crossovertimetimeperiod
periodititisisnot
notwise
wisetotoacquire
acquire
thermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremotely
remotelysensed
senseddata.
data.

••Fortunately,
Fortunately,some
somematerials
materialsstore
storeheat
heatmore
moreefficiently
efficientlythat
thatothers,
others,i.e.
i.e.they
theyhave
haveaa
higher
higherthermal
thermalcapacity.
capacity.ForForexample,
example,water
waterhas
hasaamuch
muchhigher
higherthermal
thermalcapacity
capacitythan
than
soils
soilsand
androcks).
rocks).Its
Itsdiurnal
diurnaltemperature
temperaturerange
rangefluctuates
fluctuatesvery
verylittle
littlewhen
whencompared
compared
with
withthe
thedramatic
dramatictemperature
temperaturefluctuation
fluctuationof
ofsoils
soilsand
androcks
rocksduring
duringaa24-hr
24-hrperiod.
period.
Pre-dawn
Pre-dawnThermal
ThermalInfrared
InfraredImage
Imageof
ofEffluent
EffluentEntering
Enteringthe
theSavannah
SavannahRiver
RiverSwamp
SwampSystem
System
Savannah
River Savannah
River

2x
2xreduction
reduction March
March31,
31,1981
1981
4:28
4:28am;
am;33xx33mm
 Vertical Aerial Photograph
Vertical Aerial Photograph

Solomon
Solomon Blatt
Blatt Fieldhouse
Fieldhouse on
on
the
the University
University of
of South
South
Carolina
Carolina Campus
Campus
metal vent
metal vent

a.
a.
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image

overhanging
overhanging
eaves
eaves
March
March10,
10,1983
1983
4:30
4:30am
am
b.
0.5
0.5xx0.5
0.5mm
b.
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Data
Data Collection
Collection

Thermal
Thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensor
sensordata
datamay
maybe
becollected
collectedby:
by:
••across-track
across-trackthermal
thermalscanners
scanners,,and
and
••push-broom
push-broomlinear
linearand
andarea
areaarray
arraycharge-coupled
charge-coupled
device
device(CCD)
(CCD)detectors
detectors..
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of aa
Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Airborne
Airborne Across-
Across-
track
track Scanner
Scanner
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Multispectral
Multispectral Scanners
Scanners

••The
Thediameter
diameterof ofthe
thecircular
circularground
groundareaareaviewed
viewedby
bythe
the
sensor,
sensor,DD,,isisaafunction
functionofofthe instantaneous-field-of-view,,,,
theinstantaneous-field-of-view
of
ofthe
thescanner
scannermeasured
measuredin inmilliradians
milliradians(mrad)
(mrad)and
andthe
thealtitude
altitude
of
ofthe
thescanner
scannerabove
aboveground
groundlevel
level,,HH,,where:
where:
H 
D  H
D
For
Forexample,
example,ififthe
theIFOV
IFOVof ofthe
thescanner
scannerisis2.5
2.5mrad,
mrad,the
the
ground
groundsize
sizeof
ofthe
thepixel
pixelin
inmeters
metersisisaaproduct
productof
ofthe
theIFOV
IFOV
(0.0025)
(0.0025)and
andthe
thealtitude
altitudeabove
aboveground
groundlevel
level(AGL)
(AGL)ininmeters.
meters.
IFOVs
IFOVsrange
rangefrom
from0.50.5to
to55milliradians
milliradians
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Detectors
Detectors

Thermal
Thermalinfrared
infrareddetectors
detectorsare
areusually
usuallycomposed
composedof:
of:
••In:Sb
In:Sb(indium
(indiumantimonide)
antimonide)with
withaapeak
peaksensitivity
sensitivitynear
near5µm;
5µm;
••Gd:Hg
Gd:Hg(mercury-doped
(mercury-dopedgermanium)
germanium)with
withaapeak
peaksensitivity
sensitivitynear
near
10
10µm,
µm,or
or
••Hg:Cd:Te
Hg:Cd:Te(mercury-cadmium-telluride)
(mercury-cadmium-telluride)sensitive
sensitiveover
overthe
therange
range
from
from88--14
14µm.
µm.
The
Thedetectors
detectorsare arecooled
cooledtotolow
lowtemperatures
temperatures(-196
(-196˚C;
˚C;-243
-243˚C;
˚C;7373˚K)
˚K)
using
usingliquid
liquidhelium
heliumor orliquid
liquidnitrogen.
nitrogen.Cooling
Coolingthe
thedetectors
detectorsinsures
insuresthat
that
the
theradiant
radiantenergy
energy(photons)
(photons)recorded
recordedbybythe
thedetectors
detectorscomes
comesfrom
fromthe
the
terrain
terrainand
andnot
notfrom
fromthe
theambient
ambienttemperature
temperatureof
ofobjects
objectswithin
withinthe
the
scanner
scanneritself.
itself.
Peak
Peak Sensitivity
Sensitivity of
of Indium-
Indium-
Antimonide
Antimonide and
and Mercury-
Mercury-
doped
doped Germanium
Germanium Thermal
Thermal
Infrared
Infrared Detectors
Detectors
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Remote
Remote Sensing
Sensing

There
Thereisisan
aninverse
inverserelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenhaving
havinghigh
highspatial
spatialresolution
resolution
and
andhigh
highradiometric
radiometricresolution
resolutionwhen
whencollecting
collectingthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata.
data.
••The
Thelarger
largerthe
theradiometer instantaneous-field-of-view,, ,the
radiometerinstantaneous-field-of-view, thelonger
longerthethedwell
dwelltime
time
that
thatan
anindividual
individualdetector
detectorcancanview
viewthe
theterrain
terrainwithin
withinthe
theIFOV
IFOVduring
duringaasingle
singlesweep
sweep
ofofthe
themirror.
mirror.AAlarger
largerIFOV
IFOVprovides
providesgood
goodradiometric
radiometricresolution
resolutionwhich
whichisisthetheability
ability
totodiscriminate
discriminatebetween
betweenveryverysmall
smalldifferences
differencesininradiant
radiantenergy
energyexiting
exitingthetheterrain
terrain
element.
element.In Infact,
fact,the
theradiant
radiantenergy
energysignal
signalmeasured
measuredmay maywell
wellbe
bemuch
muchstronger
strongerthanthan
any
anynoise
noiseintroduced
introducedfromfromthe thesensor
sensorsystem
systemcomponents.
components.WhenWhenthis
thistakes
takesplace
placewe we
say
saythat
thatwewehave
haveaagoodgoodsignal
signaltotonoise
noiseratio
ratio. .Of
Ofcourse,
course,the
thelarger
largerthe
theIFOV,
IFOV,the thepoorer
poorer
the
theability
abilitytotoresolve
resolvefine
finespatial
spatialdetail.
detail.Selecting
Selectingaasmaller
smallerIFOV
IFOVwillwillincrease
increasethe the
spatial
spatialresolution.
resolution.But,But,the
thesensor
sensorwill
willdwell
dwellaashorter
shortertime
timeononeach
eachterrain
terrainelement
element
during
duringaasweep
sweepof ofthe
themirror,
mirror,resulting
resultingininpoorer
poorerradiometric
radiometricresolution
resolutionandandperhaps
perhapsaa
poorer
poorersignal
signaltotonoise
noiseratio.
ratio.
 Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Multispectral
Multispectral Scanners
Scanners

••Daedalus
DaedalusDS-1260,
DS-1260,DS-1268,
DS-1268,and
andAirborne
AirborneMultispectral
Multispectral
Scanner
Scanner
••These
Thesescanners
scannersprovide
providesome
someof ofthe
theuseful
usefulhigh
highspatial
spatialand
and
spectral
spectralresolution
resolutionthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata
datafor
formonitoring
monitoringthethe
environment.
environment.TheTheDS-1260
DS-1260records
recordsdata
datainin10
10bands
bandsincluding
including
aathermal-infrared
thermal-infraredchannel
channel(8.5
(8.5to
to13.5
13.5µm).
µm).TheTheDS-1268
DS-1268
incorporates
incorporatesthe
theThematic
ThematicMapper
Mappermiddle-infrared
middle-infraredbands
bands(1.55
(1.55
--1.75
1.75µm
µmand and2.08
2.08--2.35
2.35µm).
µm).The
TheAMS
AMScontains
containsaahot-target,
hot-target,
thermal-infrared
thermal-infrareddetector
detector(3.0
(3.0to
to5.5
5.5µm)
µm)in inaddition
additionto
tothe
the
standard
standardthermal-infrared
thermal-infrareddetector
detector(8.5
(8.5to
to12.5
12.5µm).
µm).
 Geometric
GeometricCorrection
Correctionof
ofAcross-Track
Across-Track
Thermal
ThermalInfrared
InfraredScanner
ScannerData
Data

Thermal
Thermalinfrared
infraredscanning
scanningsystems
systems(actually
(actuallyall
allscanning
scanningsystems)
systems)
introduce
introducenumerous
numeroustypes
typesof
ofgeometric
geometricerror
errorthat
thatmust
mustbebeunderstood
understood
because
becausethey
theyimpact
impacta)
a)the
thequality
qualityof
ofthe
theimagery
imageryforforvisual
visualor
ordigital
digital
image
imageprocessing
processingand
andanalysis,
analysis,and
andb)
b)the
thecreation
creationofofplanimetric
planimetricmaps
maps
from
fromthe
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddata.
data.The
Themost
mostimportant
importantconsiderations
considerationsare:
are:
••ground
groundswath
swathwidth;
width;
••spatial
spatialresolution
resolutioncell
cellsize;
size;
••tangential
tangentialscale
scaledistortion,
distortion,and
and
••one-dimensional
one-dimensionalrelief
reliefdisplacement.
displacement.
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of aa
Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Airborne
Airborne Across-
Across-
track
track Scanner
Scanner
Ground
GroundResolution
ResolutionCell
CellSize
SizeAlong
AlongaaSingle
SingleAcross-Track
Across-TrackScan
Scan
 Ground
Ground Swath
Swath Width
Width

••Ground
GroundSwath
SwathWidthWidth(gsw)
(gsw)isisthe
thelength
lengthof ofthe
theterrain
terrainstrip
stripremotely
remotely
sensed
sensedbybythe thesystem
systemduring
duringoneonecomplete
completeacross-track
across-tracksweep
sweepof ofthe
the
scanning
scanningmirror.
mirror. ItItisisaafunction
functionofofthe
thetotal
totalangular
angularfield
fieldof
ofview
viewof ofthe
the
sensor system,,,and
sensorsystem, andthe
thealtitude
altitudeofofthe
thesensor
sensorsystem
systemabove-ground-
above-ground-
level,
level,HH.. ItItisiscomputed
computedas as  
gswtan
gsw tan H
H22
22
For
Forexample,
example,ififaascanner
scannerisisflown
flownatatan
analtitude
altitude6,000
6,000mmAGL
AGLusing
usingaa
sensor
sensorwith
withaa100
100degree
degreetotal
totalfield
fieldof
ofview:
view:
100
100 6000  2
gsw  tan 
gsw  tan    6000  2
2
 2 
gsw11..1917
gsw 19176000
600022
gsw14
gsw 14,,301
301mm
 Inverse-Square
Inverse-Square Law
Law

Halving
Halvingthe
thedistance
distanceof
ofaaremote
remotesensing
sensingdetector
detectorfrom
fromaapoint
point
source
sourcequadruples
quadruplesthe
theinfrared
infraredenergy
energyreceived
receivedby
bythat
thatdetector.
detector.
The
Theinverse-square
inverse-squarelaw
lawstates
statesthat:
that:
““the
theintensity
intensityof
ofradiation
radiationemitted
emittedfrom
fromaapoint
pointsource
source
varies
variesasasthe
theinverse
inversesquare
squareof
ofthe
thedistance
distancebetween
between
source
sourceandandreceiver.”
receiver.”
Thus,
Thus,we
wecancanobtain
obtainaamore
moreintense,
intense,strong
strongthermal
thermalinfrared
infrared
signal
signalififwe
wecan
canget
getthe
theremote
remotesensor
sensordetector
detectoras
asclose
closeto
tothe
the
ground
groundas aspractical.
practical.
 The
Theintensity
intensityofof
thermal
thermalradiation
radiation
emitted
emittedfromfromaapoint
point
source,
source,SS,,varies
variesas
as
the
theinverse
inversesquare
squareofof
the
thedistance,
distance,dd,,
between
betweenthe thesource
source
and
andremote
remotedetector
detector
receiver,
receiver,DD11ororDD22
 Consideration
Consideration

Most
Mostthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensing
sensinginvestigations
investigationstry
tryto
tomaintain
maintaingood
good
radiometric
radiometricand
andspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionby:
by:
••selecting
selectingaafairly
fairlylarge
largeIFOV
IFOVsuch
suchas
as2.5
2.5mrad,
mrad,and
and
••flying
flyingatataarelatively
relativelylow
lowaltitude
altitudeto
toobtain
obtainsmaller
smallerpixel
pixelsizes.
sizes.
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,atatlower
loweraltitudes,
altitudes,the
thehigh
highspatial
spatialresolution
resolutionmay
maybebe
outweighed
outweighedby bythe
thefact
factthat
thatmore
moreflight
flightlines
linesare
arerequired
requiredtotocover
coverthe
the
area
areacompared
comparedto tomore
moreefficient
efficientcoverage
coverageatathigher
higheraltitudes
altitudeswith
withlarger
larger
pixels.
pixels.The
Thepixel
pixelsize
sizeand
andthe
thegeographic
geographicsizesizeof
ofthe
thesurvey
surveyare
are
considered,
considered,objectives
objectivesareareweighed,
weighed,andandaacompromise
compromiseisisreached.
reached.
Multiple
Multipleflight
flightlines
linesofofaircraft
aircraftMSS
MSSdatadataare
aredifficult
difficultto
tomosaic
mosaic..
Perspective
PerspectiveGeometry
GeometryofofaaVertical
VerticalAerial
AerialPhotograph
Photograph
and
andAcross-track
Across-trackOne-dimensional
One-dimensionalRelief
ReliefDisplacement
Displacement
and
andTangential
TangentialScale
ScaleDistortion
Distortion
 Daytime
DaytimeOptical
Optical
and
andNighttime
Nighttime
Thermal
ThermalInfrared
Infrared
Imagery
Imageryof
ofNew
New
York
YorkCity
City

Aerial
AerialPhotograph
Photograph Thermal
ThermalInfrared
Infrared
Ground
GroundResolution
ResolutionCell
CellSize
SizeAlong
AlongaaSingle
SingleAcross-Track
Across-TrackScan
Scan
 Vertical Aerial Photograph
Vertical Aerial Photograph

Daytime
DaytimeOptical
Opticaland
and
science
science
buildings
buildings
library
library Nighttime
NighttimeThermal
ThermalInfrared
Infrared
Imagery
Imageryof
ofthe
theUniversity
Universityof of
dorms
dorms
South
SouthCarolina
CarolinaCampus
Campus

parking
parking

soccer field
a. soccer field
a.
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image
Pre-dawn Thermal Infrared Image
one-dimensional
one-dimensional
relief
relief
displacement
displacement

steam
steam
lines
lines

manhole
manhole
cover
cover
line-of-flight
line-of-flight

steam
steam
April
April26,
26,1981
1981
plant
plant
2x reduction 4:56
4:56amam
b.
11xx11mm
b.
 Radiometric
Radiometric Calibration
Calibration of
of
Thermal
Thermal Scanner
Scanner Data
Data
To
Touse
usethe
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remotesensor
sensordata
datafor
forpractical
practicalpurposes
purposes
such
suchasastemperature
temperaturemapping,
mapping,ititisisnecessary
necessaryto
tocalibrate
calibratethe
thebrightness
brightness
values
valuesstored
storedon
onthe
thedigital
digitaltape
tapeto
totemperature
temperaturevalues.
values.This
Thisradiometric
radiometric
calibration
calibrationmay
maybebeperformed
performedusing:
using:

••internal
internalblackbody
blackbodysource
sourcereferencing
referencing,,or
or

••external
externalempirical
empiricalreferencing
referencingbased
basedon
onin
insitu
situdata
datacollection
collection..
Characteristics
Characteristics of
of aa
Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared
Airborne
Airborne Across-
Across-
track
track Scanner
Scanner
External
External Empirical
Empirical Referencing
Referencing of
of
Thermal
Thermal Infrared
Infrared Imagery
Imagery
 Push-broom
Push-broom Linear
Linear and
and Area
Area Array
Array
Charge-coupled
Charge-coupled device
device (CCD)
(CCD) Detectors
Detectors
ItItisispossible
possibletotomake
makeboth
bothlinear
linearand
andarea
areaarrays
arraysthat
thatare
aresensitive
sensitivetotomid-
mid-and
andthermal
thermal
infrared
infraredradiation.
radiation.Linear
Linearand
andarea
areaarrays
arraysallow
allowimproved
improvedthermal
thermalinfrared
infraredremote
remote
sensing
sensingtototake
takeplace
placebecause
because::

••the
thesolid-state
solid-statemicroelectronic
microelectronicdetectors
detectorsare
aresmaller
smallerininsize
size(e.g.
(e.g.20
20xx20
20mm)
mm)and
and
weight,
weight,require
requireless
lesspower
powertotooperate,
operate,have
havefewer
fewermoving
movingparts,
parts,and
andare
aremore
morereliable;
reliable;

••each
eachdetector
detectorininthe
thearray
arraycan
canview
viewthe
theground
groundresolution
resolutionelement
elementfor
foraalonger
longertime
time
(i.e.
(i.e.ititisisas
aslonger
longerdwell
dwelltime),
time),allowing
allowingmore
morephotons
photonsof ofenergy
energyfrom
fromwithin
withinthe
theIFOV
IFOV
totobe
berecorded
recordedby bythe
theindividual
individualdetector
detectorresulting
resultingininimproved
improvedradiometric
radiometricresolution
resolution
(the
(theability
abilitytotoresolve
resolvesmaller
smallertemperature
temperaturedifferences);
differences);

••each
eachdetector
detectorelement
elementininthe
thelinear
linearor
orarea
areaarray
arrayisisfixed
fixedrelative
relativetotoall
allother
otherelements
elements
therefore
thereforethe
thegeometry
geometryof ofthe
thethermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimage
imageisismuch
muchimproved
improvedrelative
relativetotothat
that
produced
producedby byan
anacross-track
across-trackscanning
scanningsystem;
system;and
and
••some
somelinear
linearand
andarea
areathermal
thermaldetectors
detectorsdodonot
noteven
evenrequire
requirethe
thecooling
coolingapparatus.
apparatus.
 Forward-Looking
Forward-Looking Infrared
Infrared (FLIR)
(FLIR) Systems
Systems

••For
Fordecades,
decades,the
themilitary
militaryorganizations
organizationsthroughout
throughoutthe the
world
worldhave
havefunded
fundedthe
thedevelopment
developmentof ofFLIR
FLIRtype
typesystems
systems
that
thatlook
lookobliquely
obliquelyahead
aheadofofthe
theaircraft
aircraftand
andacquire
acquirehigh-
high-
quality
qualitythermal
thermalinfrared
infraredimagery,
imagery,especially
especiallyatatnight.
night.

••FLIR
FLIRsystems
systemscollect
collectthe
theinfrared
infraredenergy
energybased
basedononthe
the
same
sameprinciples
principlesas
asan
anacross-track
across-trackscanner
scannerpreviously
previously
discussed,
discussed,except
exceptthat
thatthe
themirror
mirrorpoints
pointsforward
forwardabout
about45˚
45˚
and
andprojects
projectsterrain
terrainenergy
energyduring
duringaasingle
singlesweep
sweepof ofthe
the
mirror
mirroronto
ontoaalinear
lineararray
arrayofofthermal
thermalinfrared
infrareddetectors.
detectors.
Forward
Forward Looking
Looking
Infrared
Infrared (FLIR)
(FLIR)
Examples
Examples