IIRS - RS&GIS Complete Material

I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F R E M O T E S E N S I N G, D E H R A D U N
Basics of remote sensing
Dr. Manu Mehta

Scientist/Engineer SE, PRSD
manu@iirs.gov.in
13/6/2020
1
Saturday
How to collect scientific data?
Remotely
In situ
What is Remote Sensing?

“The science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of
data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the
object, area, or phenomenon under
investigation“.(L&K,1994)
Why Remote Sensing?
• Systematic data collection

• Information about three dimensions of real objects
• Repeatability
• Global coverage
• The only solution sometimes for the otherwise
inaccessible areas
• Multipurpose information
Is it all…???
Remote Sensing Process

A
E G
B F
C

A
OUR FOCUS
B  Properties of EMR
C  Interaction of radiation with target
 Interaction of radiation with
atmosphere
 Properties of EMR
-Wave Nature
-Particle nature
-Wave Particle duality
-EM spectrum
-Radiometry
-Black Body Radiation – Laws, Spectral Emissivity
 Interaction of radiation with target
 Interaction of radiation with atmosphere

What is Electromagnetic Radiation??
There are 2 theories:

Wave theory
Considers electromagnetic energy as a harmonic, sinusoidal wave
Particle theory
Considers electromagnetic radiation as consisting of many discreet units
- photons
EMR propagation as wave
An electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave in that the

electric field and the magnetic field at any point and time in
the wave are perpendicular to each other as well as to the
direction of propagation
Terms associated with wave theory

 Crest : The highest point of the wave.
 Trough : The lowest point of the wave.
 Wavelength : The distance between two
identical points on the wave. .
 Frequency : The number of wavelengths that
pass a point in a set period of time.
Speed of light
c =λ ν
where λ is wavelength (m)
is frequency (cycles per second, Hz)
c is speed of light (3×108 m/s)
Light does not require a material medium for its propagation!!
EMR : particle nature

The energy of a photon is given by :
E = hν
= hc/λ
where c, ν and λ are the velocity, frequency and
wavelength respectively and h is Plank’s constant
h = 6.6260... x 10-34 Joules-sec
Wave-particle duality
In 1924, Louis-Victor de Broglie formulated the de

Broglie hypothesis, claiming that all matter, not just
light, has a wave-like nature; and related wavelength
(denoted as λ), and momentum (denoted as p):
λ= h/p
h is Plank’s constant
Higher wavelength
Lower wavelength
Higher Frequency Lower Frequency
Higher Energy Lower Energy

Visible range
The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can

detect is part of the visible spectrum.
Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 m

Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 m
Green: 0.500 - 0.578 m
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 m
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 m
Red: 0.620 - 0.7 m
Infra-Red range
The infrared region can be divided

into two categories based on
their radiation properties - the
reflected IR, and the emitted
or thermal IR.
The reflected IR covers

wavelengths from approximately
0.7 m to 3.0 m. The thermal
IR covers wavelengths from
approximately 3.0 m to 100
m.
Microwave range
The portion of the spectrum

of more recent interest to
remote sensing is the
microwave region from about
1 mm to 1 m. This covers the
longest wavelengths used for
remote sensing.
RADIOMETRY
Solid angle
It is the cone
angle subtended
by the portion of
a spherical
surface at the
center of the
sphere.
d Ω = dS / r2 (in steradian, Sr)

TIME
TIME
SOLID
ANGLE TIME
AREA
TIME
SOLID ANGLE
AREA
Projected area
MANU MEHTA
प्रश्नोत्तरी / Quiz
सभी प्रतिभागियों से अनरु ोध है कि प्रश्नोत्तरी में भाि लेने हे िु वे ई-क्लास में लॉगिन िरें :
URL : https://eclass.iirs.gov.in/login
नोट: प्रतिभािी जो पहले से ही ई-क्लास में लॉिइन हैं , प्रश्नोत्तरी में भाि लेने हे िु िृपया अपने वेब पेज िो
ररफ्रेश िरें ।
All the Participants are requested to login in E-CLASS :
Note : Participants who are already logged in, please refresh your Web Page to Participate in the quiz.
QUIZ TIME
1. Is our eye a remote sensor?
A) YES B)NO
2. What are the units of spectral radiance ?

A) W/m sq. B)W/m sq./Sr C)W/m sq/Sr/micron
3. Which radiometric quantity would be most suitable to measure for

sun’s incoming energy ?
A) Irradiance B)Exitance C)Radiance
4. A radiation of wavelength 4 micron falls in which portion of EM

spectrum ?
A) Visible B)IR C)Microwave
Black Body
Blackbodies absorb and re-emit radiation in a

characteristic, continuous spectrum. However, a black
body emits a temperature-dependent spectrum of light.
This thermal radiation from a black body is termed
black-body radiation.
Plank’s Law of radiation

M = C1-5 [exp.(C2/T) - 1]-1
Manifestation of
quantization of
energy !
M is spectral
exitance
C1 =3.74x10-16Wm2
C2 =1.44x10-2moK
 is the wavelength
T is the absolute
temperature
Plank’s Law of radiation
INTEGRATE DIFFERENTIATE
Stefan Boltzmann Wien’s Displacement law

Law
M =  M () d =  T4 max (m)  2898
M () = spectral radiant exitance T(°K)
T = temperature (°K),
 = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
How close a real body is to a Black

Body ??
Spectral Emissivity
The efficiency with which real materials emit thermal
radiation at different wavelengths is determined by
their emissivity ‘’
() = M (material, 0K) / M (blackbody, 0K)
() varies between 0 and 1

Blackbody :  = 1 at all wavelengths.
Gray body : 0 <  < 1 (does not depend upon
wavelength)
Perfect reflector:  = 0
All other bodies  =  (  ) is a function of wavelength
EMR interaction with matter
At boundary of Within medium

two surfaces:
Reflection Refraction Absorption Scattering

Interaction of EMR with Earth’s surface

Kirchoff’s law of Radiation
 () + () +  () = 1
where  () is absorptivity , () is reflectance and  ()
is transmittance
Interaction Processes
1. Reflection
Specular : Snell’s law
Diffused
Lambertian : Lambert Cosine law
2. Transmission
3. Absorption
Reflection
Specular Diffused
Rayleigh Criteria for smooth surface

Rayleigh’s criteria for a rough surface is :
h > λ/8cosθ
where h = rms height variation above a reference plane in units of λ
λ is the wavelength and θ is the angle of incidence
Spectral Signatures
Why the name signature ??

Physical processes in atmosphere
 Absorption
 Scattering
 Refraction
MANU MEHTA
Atmospheric Windows
Atmospheric windows : Spectral regions where the EMR is

passed through without much attenuation.
Scattering : Redirection of light
Mie
Rayleigh
Non-
selective
Scattering
Scattering Wavelength Approximate Kinds
process dependency dependence of particles
on particle
size
Selective
Rayleigh  -4 < 1 m Air molecules
Mie 0 to -4 0.1 to 10 m Smoke, haze
Non- 0 > 10 m Dust, fog,

selective clouds
Effect of Atmosphere on Remote sensing
 Absorption
Only Atmospheric windows available !
 Scattering
Modification of spatial/spectral distribution of incoming and
outgoing radiation !
Atmospheric turbulence limits resolution !
What have we learnt ??
 Definition and Overview of Remote Sensing History and Evolution of Remote

Sensing and Remote Sensing Systems.
 Electromagnetic Radiation, Terms and Definitions, Laws of Radiation, EM
Spectrum
 Interaction between EM Radiation and matter, Reflection, Absorption and
Transmission.
 Interactions between EM Radiation and Atmosphere, Atmospheric windows
THANKS
For further queries and doubts :
manu@iirs.gov.in
PS : The material used in the presentation has been

compiled from various sources : book by Dr.George
Joseph, RS tutorials by ccrs, NASA, ITC, other
books, lecture notes, tutorials and online resources
Suggested readings
 George J. (2005) : Fundamentals of remote Sensing;
Universities press (India)Pvt ltd, Hyderabad, india.
 Lillesand T.M., Keifer R.W. and Chipman J. (2008) : remote
Sensng and Image Interpretation, 6th Edition, John Wiley.
 Sabins F.F. (1996) : Remote Sensing and Interpretation ,
Waveland Pr. Inc.
 Campbell J.B. (2002) : Introduction to Remote Sensing ,
Guilford Press
 Remote Sensing III Edition : American Society of
photogrammetry and Remote Sensing.
 Jenson, J. R., (2000) : Remote Sening of the Environment :
An Earth Resource Perspective, New Jersey : Prentice Hall.
Earth Observation
Sensors and Platforms
Vinay Kumar
Scientist, IIRS
vinaykumar@iirs.gov.in
17-Jun-20
 Remote Sensing is the art, science and technology of observing an

object scene or phenomenon by instrument-based techniques.
 Remote: because observation is done at a distance without physical
contact with the object of interest
 Sensing: Detection of energy, such as light or another form of
electromagnetic energy
Measurement from a distance
It enables us to observe and study nature in ways that would otherwise be

beyond human capability, across great distances and at wavelengths of light
invisible to human eyes

Energy Source Sensor
SatCom
Application
•Land use
•Atmosphere
•Geology
•Hydrology
•Agriculture
•Forestry
•Disaster Management
Ground receiving & Indian Receiving Station at

Processing Station Analysis Shadnagar
Target
Sensors and platforms that are used to

create image data of the Earth
Sensors= a device that records EM Energy

Platforms= carrier bed used to carry a sensor
History of remote sensing

 1827 - first photograph
 1858 - first aerial photograph from a hot air balloon
 1861-1865 - Balloon photography used in American Civil War
 1888 – ‘rocket’ cameras
 1903 - pigeon-mounted camera patented
 1906 - photograph from a kite
 1914-1945 - Plane mounted Cameras WWI, WWII
 1956 - U2 spy planes
 1957 - Sputnik-1
 1960 - 1st meteorological satellite ‘TIROS-1’ launched
 1967 - NASA ‘Earth Resource Technology Satellite’ programme
 1972 - ERTS (Landsat) 1 launched...
 Ground based
 Airborne
 Spaceborne
 Used to record detailed information about the

surface which is compared with information
collected from aircraft or satellite sensors.
 In some cases, this can be used to better

characterize the target which is being imaged
by the other sensors, making it possible to
better understand the information in the
imagery.
 Sensors may be placed on a ladder,

scaffolding, tall building, crane, etc.
 Are primarily stable wing aircraft,

although helicopters are
occasionally used.
 To collect very detailed images and

facilitate the collection of data over
any portion of the Earth's surface
at any time.
 Space remote sensing is sometimes conducted from the

 Space Shuttle
 International Space Station
 Satellites (more commonly)
 Satellites are objects which revolve around another object - in this case, the
Earth.
 e.g: the moon is a natural satellite, whereas man-made satellites include those
platforms launched for remote sensing, communication, and telemetry
(location and navigation) purposes.
 The path followed by the satellite is called

orbit.
 The satellite moves as per Kepler’s law.
1st Law: The path followed by each planet is an

ellipse with sun at one FOCI.
2nd Law: The line joining to the planet to sun

sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3rd Law: The square of the period of the planet is T² α a³

proportional to the cube of the semi major axis.
 Altitude Orbit of
Satellite
 Inclination angle
 Period Inclination
 Repeat Cycle Equatorial

 Swath Plane
 Ascending pass & Descending pass Earth

 Perigee & Apogee
 Altitude ~ 36,000 km,  Altitude ~700-800 km

 Orbit inclination ~ 0°  Orbit inclination ~ 98.7º
 Period of orbit = 24 hours  Orbital period ~90 minutes
 Global coverage requires several  Sun-synchronous, near-polar, near-circular
geostationary satellite in orbits at different  Satellite orbit is fixed in space (basically north-
latitudes south ): Earth rotates beneath it (west-east)
 Good for repetitive observations, poor for  Cross the equator (N-S) at ~10.30am local time
spatially detailed data  Satellite Orbital plane is near polar and the
 Large distortions at high latitudes altitude is such that the satellite passes each place
 W-E satellite orbiting Earth at same local sun-time.
 Mainly used for communication and
meteorological applications – GOES,  Cover entire globe – LANDSAT, SPOT,
METEOSAT, INSAT, GSAT etc. Sentinel, IRS, RISAT etc.
The satellite's orbit (North –South) and the rotation of the Earth (from west
to east) work together to allow complete coverage of the Earth's surface,
after it has completed one complete cycle of orbits
Passive Active
Optical Remote Sensing Microwave Remote Sensing

Passive Sensors Passive Sensors

 Photographic Camera  Spectro-radiometers
 The Optical Scanners
 Across Track Scanners
 Along Track Scanners

Active Sensors
 Laser Distance Meter
 The Thermal Scanner
 Laser Water Depth Meter
 Microwave Altimeter
Active Sensors
 SAR (Synthetic Aperture RADAR)
 LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
 Whisk broom scanning

 Scan the Earth in a series of lines.
 The lines are oriented perpendicular to the A
direction of motion of the sensor platform (i.e. C
E B
across the swath).
D
 Data are collected within an arc below the F
system typically of some 90º to 120º

 Multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic
mapper (TM) and Operational Land Imager
(OLI) of LANDSAT, and Advanced Very
High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) of
NOAA are the examples of Whisk Broom
scanners
 Push broom scanning

 Scan the Earth in a series of lines.
 This also use the forward motion of the
platform to record successive scan lines and
build up a two-dimensional image,
perpendicular to the flight direction.
 Linear arrays normally consist of numerous
charge-coupled devices (CCDs) positioned
end to end.
 Linear imaging self scanning (LISS) and
Wide Fielf Sensor (WiFS) of IRS Series, and
sensors of SPOT series are the examples of
Push broom scanners
Across Track Scanners Along Track Scanners
Sabin, 1997
Whiskbroom Pushbroom
Field of View (FOV), Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV)

Dwell time is the time required for the detector IFOV to sweep across a ground cell.
The longer dwell time allows more energy to impinge on the detector, which creates a stronger signal.
High Resolution Imaging mode

 Time Delay Integration (TDI)
 Step & Stare

What is a digital image?

 Grid cells or pixels
 Each pixel has a digital number (DN) which represents: Spectral Reflectance
Value 70 53 41 64 84 85 81 88 91 87
79 77 45 38 59 77 84 86 85 85
80 82 69 44 32 45 72 86 82 78
88 79 86 87 65 40 41 75 79 78
Pixel
93 86 93 106 106 84 56 43 58 75
104 104 100 101 95 91 83 51 39 56
105 110 97 88 84 85 87 77 59 44 Digital Number

96 103 89 79 79 75 77 79 74 72
(DN)
87 93 97 90 82 76 70 67 61 71
79 81 88 97 93 85 78 74 70 72
81 75 78 85 94 97 92 84 80 72
What your computer sees…

Resolution
Ability of the system to render the information at the smallest discretely separable quantity
in terms of distance (spatial), wavelength band of EMR (spectral), time (temporal) and
radiation (radiometric).
The Four Resolutions of Remote Sensing

 Spatial
A Measure of discernable physical dimension of the surface from the image
 Spectral
A measure of the width of the wavelength (bandwidth) which is used to generate the image. Narrower
the bandwidth higher the spectral resolution
 Radiometric
A measure of what is the minimum change in radiance that can be measured
 Temporal
Frequency of Observation: Number of days between two consecutive observation for a particular
ground target under similar viewing geometry
Spatial Resolution
 The physical dimension on earth is recorded
 It refers to the amount of detail that can be detected by Pixel = detector size
a sensor. CCD Linear Array
 Detailed mapping of land use practices requires a

much greater spatial resolution Lens
Field of view
IFOV
Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV)
It is defined the solid angle through which a detector is H
sensitive to radiation.
GRE
ground pixel
IFOV = D/F radian
GRE = IFOV x H
where, GRE=Ground Resolution Element

D=detector dimension, Flight Direction
F=focal length, and
H=flying height
INFORMATION CONTENT VS RESOLUTION
A) OCM (360m) D) 72m (LISS-I)

B) 360m (OCM) C) 188m (WiFS)
E) 36m (LISS-II) F) 23m (LISS-III)

G) 5.8m (IRS 1C PAN)
‘A’ is from a scene from IRS Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM). The area in the small square
marked (≈ 4km x 4km) is shown in various resolutions from B to G.
AWIFS (56 m) ETM 30m IRS LISS III 23.5 m
ASTER 15 m IRS PAN 5.8 m IKONOS MSS 4 m
IKONOS PAN 1m
Spatial Resolution
Smallest discernible detail in an image
I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F R E M OCloud
T E Spatterns,
E N S I N movement
G , D E H R A D U 1-2
N Kms.
Meteorology Water vapor Analysis 8 Kms.
Ocean Color Monitoring
(Chlorophyll, Sediment
Oceanography Map, Yellow Substance, 300-1100 m
Sea Surface Temp.
Mapping)
Crop monitoring,
Forest Mapping, 20-30 m
Hydrology etc.
Land use
Cartography, Urban 2-6 m
Planning
Military Surveillance  1m
• 1 Km to 1 m spatial Resolution
• 24 Days to every 30 mts. Repetitivity
• 1 Million scale to Cadastral Level
Spectral Resolution
 Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals.
 This refers to the number of bands in the spectrum in which the instrument can take
measurements.
 Higher spectral resolution = better ability to exploit differences in spectral signatures
• panchromatic
• multispectral
• hyperspectral
Panchromatic Image Multispectral Image

(1 m) (4 m)
EO-1 Hyperion EO-1 ALI Landsat-7 ETM+
Bands-150 Bands-9 Bands-6
(after processing)
(0.45 to 0.52m) (0.52 to 0.60 m) (0.63 to 0.69 m) (0.75 to 0.90 m) (1.55 to 1.75 m) (2.09 to 2.35m)
Visible Infrared
1 2 3 4 5 7
3,2,1 4,3,2
True Color Composite False Color Composite
(0.45 to 0.52m) (0.52 to 0.60 m) (0.63 to 0.69 m) (0.75 to 0.90 m) (1.55 to 1.75 m) (2.09 to 2.35m)
Band Wavelength (μm) Principal applications

1 0.45 – 0.52 (blue) Penetration of clear water: bathymetry; mapping of coastal waters;
chlorophyll absorption; distinction between deciduous and coniferous
vegetation.
2 0.52 – 0.60 (green) Records the green reflectance peak of vegetation; assesses plant vigor;
reflectance from turbid water.
3 0.63 – 0.69 (red) This band operates in the chlorophyll absorption region and is best for
detecting roads, bare soil.
4 0.75 – 0.90 (NIR) This band is used to estimate biomass. Although it separates water bodies
from vegetation and discriminates soil moisture, it is not as effective as B3
for road identification.
5 1.55 – 1.75 (MIR) Band 5 is considered to be the best single band overall. It discriminates
roads, bare soil, and water. It also provides a good contrast between
different types of vegetation and has excellent atmospheric and haze
penetration. Discriminates snow from clouds,
7 2.09 – 2.35 (MIR) This band is useful for discriminating mineral and rock types and for
interpreting vegetation cover and moisture.
Reflectance differs by wavelength
Green Reflectance NIR Reflectance
Band 7-SWIR
NIR Reflectance SWIR Reflectance

Spectral Signature of
different Land cover
Features Band 6-Thermal
IRS LISS-3 Both cloud and snow have higher reflectance in visible and hence
cannot be discriminated (except from shadow). In SWIR, low reflectance of Landsat 7 ETM+ 14. Feb. 2000,
© Space Imaging
Kilauea Volcano (Hawaii)
Radiometric Resolution
 It describes the actual information content in an image.
 Sensitivity to the magnitude of the electromagnetic energy determines

the radiometric resolution.
 The radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its

ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy.
 The finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more sensitive it

is to detecting small differences in reflected or emitted energy.
Radiometric Resolution
2 (number of bits) = number of grey levels
256 colors
bits Grey Levels range

(b-w)
1 2 0-1
2 4 0-3
3 8 0-7
4 16 0-15
5 32 0-31
6 64 0-63
7 128 0-127
8 256 0-255
9 512 0-511
10 1024 0-1203 16 colors 2 colors
Temporal Resolution
Represents the frequency with which a satellite can re-visit an area of
interest and acquire a new image.
Depends on the instrument's field of vision and the satellite's orbit
Application demand
Meteorological  hourly need to monitor clouds
Oceanographic  2-3 days of repetivity
Stereo viewing  0-1 days of repetivity
Vegetation monitoring  5 days of repetivity
LISS-3: Nov. 2009 LISS-3: Feb. 2009

सभी प्रतिभागियों से अनुरोध है कि प्रश्नोत्तरी में भाि लेने हे िु वे ई-क्लास में लॉगिन िरें :
Quiz time
Q. Which scanner has lesser dwell time ………….
a) Across Track Scanners b) Along Track Scanners c) None of these
Q. First remote sensing satellite was launched on ………….

a) 1957 b) 1962 c) 1967 d) 1972
Q. Snow can be discriminated from cloud in …………. band

a) Red b) NIR c) SWIR d) None
Q. ………….data has better ability to exploit differences in spectral

signatures
a) Panchromatic b) Multispectral c) Hyperspectral d) Microwave
Various Earth Observation Satellites
Europe MIDDLE North America Asia
EAST
France ESA Israel USA Canada India Japan
SPOT1-86 LANDSAT5-
10m 85 30m
SPOT2-90 ERS1-92/00 LANDSAT6-
10m radar 93
SPOT3-93/96 ERS2-95 EARLYBIRD- IKONOS1-99 RADARSAT- IRS1C-95
radar 98 1m 95 6m
SPOT4-98 10m ENVISAT- LANDSAT7- IKONOS2-99 IRS1D-97 6m

2001 99 15m 1m
Radar
EROS A/1- QUICKBIRD- ORBVIEW- IRS P6-2003
00 2m 01 0.6m 01 1m 5.8m
SPOT5-02 3m+HRS10 EROS B/1- ORBVIEW- RADARSAT- CARTOSAT1- ALOS
02 1m 02 1m 03 2.5m 2.5m
SPOT6-2012 Sentinel-1A Landsat8-2013 CARTOSAT2

SPOT7-2014 & 1B-2014 & 2S- <1m
& 2016
Sentinel-2A Cartosat-3
& 2B-2015 =0.25 m
& 2017
Distribution
SPOT IMAGING Miscellaneous Imagesat SI-EOSAT, Earthwatch, RADARSAT NRSC-EOSAT Jaxa
Copernicus Orbimage, USGS
Landsat Series of Satellites
 First launched in 1972
 185Km swath
 Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS)
 4 bands (Green, Red, NIR x2)
 80m ground resolution
 First Series - Landsat 1,2 and 3
 Landsat 4 Launched 1983
 Thematic Mapper (TM)
 Seven bands -Blue, Green, Red, NIR, SWIR x 2, TIR
 30m ground resolution
 Landsat 6 failed after Launch
 Landsat 7 launched 1999
 Additional 15m panchromatic
 Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) launched on February
2013 with OLI and TIRS
 Additional coastal blue, Cirrus bands
 Two thermal band of 100 m resolution
SPOT (Système pour l'observation de la Terre) Series of Satellite
 French satellite SPOT-1 was launched in 1986

 Two modes of operation
 Off nadir look capability
 Stereo capability
*SPOT-6 (2012) & SPOT-7 (2014) form a constellation of Earth-imaging satellites designed
to provide continuity of high-resolution, wide-swath data up to 2024
ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite)

Altit Spatial Swath Repeat
Laun Sensor
Satellite ude Resolution Width Spectral Bands (µm) Coverage
ched
(Km) (m) (km) (days)
PRISM (Panchromatic 2.5 35
Remote-sensing Band PAN (VIS) -0.52 to 0.77
Instrument for Stereo
Mapping)
Band 1 (VIS)-0.42 to 0.5
AVNIR-2 (Adv. visible Band 2 (VIS)-0.52 to 0.6
10 70
and near-infrared Band 3 (VIS)-0.61 to 0.69 46
ALOS-1 2006
radiometer (type 2)) Band 4 (NIR)-0.76 to 0.89
702
PALSAR(Phased Array 10 (100) 70
Band 1 (1.27 GHz) (SAR-L)
L-band Synthetic (300)
Aperture Radar)
Band 1 (TIR)- 8 to 12
CIRC (Compact Infrared 96
628 200
Camera)
ALOS-2 2014
PALSAR(Phased Array 3 (100)
14
L-band Synthetic
25
Aperture Radar-2) Band 1 (1.257 GHz) (SAR-L)
(490)
The Evolution RISAT-2BR1
Cartosat-3
HySIS 2019
2018
RISAT-2B
RESOURCESAT-
2016
Since IRS-1A, the First 2A: LISS 3, LISS 4,
2017 Cartosat-2 Series
AWiFS 2016
Operational Remote RISAT-1 : C-
2018
Sensing Satellite SAR
2012
CARTOSAT-2B : PAN
IMS-1: Mx, HySI 2011 RESOURCES MEGHA-
CARTOSAT-2A : PAN 2010 AT-2: LISS 3, TROPIQUES:
LISS 4, AWiFS SAPHIR, SCARAB
2008 & MADRAS
2009 RISAT-2 : X-SAR
CARTOSAT-1: 2005
PAN stereo
2007 OCEANSAT-2:
2001 OCM, SCAT, ROSA
TES : PAN 2003 CARTOSAT-2: PAN
RESOURCESAT-1 :
1999 LISS 3; LISS 4; AWiFS
1997
IRS-1D : LISS-3, OCEANSAT-1 :
PAN & WiFS OCM & MSMR
1996
IRS-P3 : WiFS,
1995 MOS, X-Ray
IRS-1C : LISS-3,
PAN & WiFS 1994
IRS-P2: LISS-
IRS Satellite Series

2
1991
IRS-1A : LISS-1 & 2
1988 IRS-1A : LISS-1 & 2
IRS Satellite Series
 IRS -1A, 1B – LISS (Linear Imaging Self-Scanning)-I – 72 m
– LISS-II – 36 m
 IRS -1C, 1D – WiFS (Wide Field Sensor) – 188 m

– LISS-III – 23.5 m
– PAN (Panchromatic)-II – 5.8 m
 *Resourcesat-1, 2 & 2A – AWiFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor) – 56 m
– LISS-III – 23.5 m
– LISS-IV – 5.8 m
 IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) – PAN – 2.5 m
 CARTOSAT-2 A – PAN – 1.8 m
 CARTOSAT-2 B – PAN – <1 m
 CARTOSAT-2 Series – HRMX (High Resolution Multispectral) –2m

– PAN – 0.63 m
 Cartosat-3 – HRMX (High Resolution Multispectral) –1m
– PAN – 0.25 m
*Note- Radiometric resolution of AWiFS, LISS-III & LISS IV is better in Resourcesat-

2 & 2A in comparison with Resourcesat-1 satellite
Hyperspectral Sensors
 ISRO - NASA AVIRIS – NG
 HYSIS (Hyperspectral Imaging Sensor)
SAR Sensors
RISAT-2 RISAT-1 RISAT-2B

(2009) (2012) (2019)
IRS : LISS-I CAMERA

IRS : LISS-II CAMERA
72 m 36 m
LISS-I DATA ( CANDIGARH & ENVIRONS – LISS-II DATA ( CHANDIGARH &

NOTHERN INDIA) ENVIRONS , NORTHERN INDIA)
IRS : PAN CAMERA

IRS : LISS-III CAMERA
23 m 5.8 m
LISS –III DATA ( HYDERABAD CITY &

ENVIRONS, SOTHERN INDIA) PAN DATA ( PART OF CHANDIGARH CITY,
NORTHERN INDIA)
IRS : WiFS CAMERA
188 m 56 m
WIFS image: Appalacian IRS –P6: AWiFS Image of part of

Mountains in Tennessee Southern India & Environ.
IRS –P6: LISS –III IRS –P6: LISS –IV

Image of part of Hyderabad City Image of part of Ahmedabad City
23 m 5.8 m
Cartosat-Images
HYDERABAD BANGALORE
BANGALORE AUSTRALIA
Cartosat-2Series Image Part of Kishangarh city Cartosat-2Series Image Part of Indore city
Cartosat-3 Image: The Khalifa stadium in Doha, Qatar

Indian EO Missions in the near future

 Resourcesat 3 & 3A : ALISS 3; 10m, 925 km, Atmcorr
 Oceansat 3 & 3 A: OCM of 13 bands, Ku band scat
 RS Sampler 3S & 3SA: 1.25m stereo imaging
 GISAT 1 : HR Mx VNIR; 50m, SWIR; 1.5 km, HYSI
High Spatial Resolution satellites

 IKONOS
It is first commercial satellite to deliver near photographic quality imagery of
anywhere in the world from space.
 QUICK BIRD
 WORLDVIEW 1, 2, 3 & 4
 GEOEYE
 PLEIADES-1A & 1B
 SKYSAT-1 & 2
 KOMPSAT-1, 2, 3 & 3A
IKONOS Image of IIRS

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant
GeoEye-1 Image,
Nov. 15, 2009
IKONOS Image
March 17, 2011
IN D I A N I3N S T I T U T E O F R E M O T E S E N S I N G , D E H
KOMPSAT R A D UVIEW-3
WORLD N
KOMPSAT 3A
WORLD VIEW-4
Meteorological Satellites
 Designed specifically for weather prediction and monitoring
 Advantages of global coverage at very high temporal resolution.
 Various types of meteosats are as follows:

e.g. NOAA series (operated by U.S. named after the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration). These have near-polar, sun-synchronous orbits.
GOES, GSAT & INSAT series satellites are in geo-stationary orbits.
 India has launched GSAT & INSAT series satellites, which are telecommunication,
and meteorological satellites.
Where to find this information?
 100’s of websites of vendors, distributors, value adders, NGO’s Or

http://www.itc.nl/research/products/sensordb/searchsat.aspx
 Real time satellite tracking

http://www.satview.org/
 http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
 http://www.nrsc.gov.in/
 http://www.spaceimaging.com
 http://www.digitalglobe.com
 http://edcimswww.cr.usgs.gov/pub/imswelcome/
 http://www.spotimage.fr/home
 http://bhuvan-noeda.nrsc.gov.in/download/download/download.php
 https://scihub.copernicus.eu/dhus/#/home
 http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data/
 http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod/
 https://cross.restec.or.jp/cross-ex/topControl.action?language=en-US
Thank You
Thank You
IIRS
Email: vinaykumar@iirs.gov.in
The material for the presentation has been compiled from various sources-
books, tutorials, IRS satellite-datasets and several resources on the internet
SPECTRAL SIGNATURES AND

IMAGE INTERPRETATION
Dr. Hina Pande

Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing Department
hina@iirs.gov.in
1
16-Jun-20
A
D
E
B
F G
C E
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The electromagnetic spectrum
ranges from the shorter
wavelengths (including gamma and
x-rays) to the longer wavelengths
(including microwaves and
broadcast radio waves).
• There are several regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum which
are useful for remote sensing.
IMAGE INTERPRETATION
 Analysis of remote sensing imagery involves the
identification of various targets in an image.
 Targets may be defined in terms of the way they
reflect or emit radiation.
 Radiation is measured and recorded by a sensor, and
ultimately depicted as an image product.
• Act of examining images to identify objects and judge
their significance.
• Information extraction process from the images.
Involves a considerable amount of subjective
judgment.
• An interpreter is a specialist trained in study of
photography or imagery, in addition to his own
discipline.
• Image is a pictorial representation of an object or a scene.

• Image can be analog or digital.
• A digital image is made up of square or rectangular areas
called pixels.
• Each pixel has an associated pixel value which depends
on the amount reflected energy from the ground.
What makes interpretation of imagery more difficult

than the everyday visual interpretation of our
surroundings?
• We lose our sense of depth when viewing a two-

dimensional image, unless we can view it
stereoscopically so as to simulate the third dimension of
height.
• Viewing objects from directly above also provides a very
different perspective than what we are familiar with.
• Combining an unfamiliar perspective with a very different
scale and lack of recognizable detail can make even the
most familiar object unrecognizable in an image.
• Finally, we are used to seeing only the visible
wavelengths, and the imaging of wavelengths outside of
this window is more difficult for us to comprehend.
Data Characteristics:
• Spectral resolution = part of the EM spectrum
measured.
• Radiometric resolution = smallest differences in energy
that can be measured.
• Spatial resolution = smallest unit area measured.
• Revisit time (temporal resolution) = time between two
successive image acquisitions over the same area.
Advantages of Using Images over ground observation

 Synoptic view
 Permanent record Cost and time effective
Stereoscopic view
 Spectral resolution
Easy interpretation of context
 Spatial resolution
Spectral Signature
 Identity is whatever makes an entity recognizable.
 A signature is that which gives an object or piece of
information its identity.
Albert Einstein Shahrukh Khan

Elizabeth Taylor
Characteristic feature which forms key to enable an object
to be identified.
Spectral, Spatial, temporal and polarization variations which
facilitate discrimination of features on remotely sensed data.
What is a spectral reflectance curve ?

A spectral reflectance curve is a graph of the spectral
reflectance of an object as a function of wavelength and is very
useful for choosing the wavelength regions for remotely
sensed data acquisition for a certain application.
Significance of spectral signature in

remote sensing
 Spectral responses measured by RS sensors over

various features.
 Spectral reflectance & spectral emittance curves.
 Variability of spectral signature: useful for evaluation of
condition, not for spectral identification of earth features.
 Temporal and spatial effects on spectral response
patterns.
 Change detection depends on temporal effects.
Spectral Signature for Vegetation

 A general characteristic of
vegetation is its green colour
caused by the pigment
chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll reflects green
energy more than red and blue
energy, which gives plants
green colour.
Fig: Spot
image
 The major difference in leaf reflectance between species, are

dependent upon leaf thickness.
 It affects both pigment content and physiological structure.
 Leaf reflectance is reduced as
citrus
tomato
60
a result of absorption by three
Reflectance (%)
sorghum
cotton
40 major water absorption bands

that occur near wavelengths of
20
1.4 m, 1.9 m and 2.7 m and
0
0.5 1.0
two minor water absorption
1.5 2.0 2.5
bands that occur
Wavelength (m) near
wavelengths of 0.96 m, and
1.1 m
Thick leaf
Thin leaf
Needle-leaf trees canopies reflect significantly less near-infrared

radiation compared to broad-leaf vegetation.
Coniferous forest Deciduous forest
Mature plant
Immature leaves contain Immature plant

less chlorophyll and
fewer air voids than
older leaves, they reflect
more visible light and
less infrared radiation.
Reflectance is also affected by health of vegetation
Healthy plants
100
80
Reflectance (%)
60
40
(21)
20 (24)
Infected plants
0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Wavelength (m)
Q1. Image interpretation is

a. Information extraction process
b. Correcting errors in the image
c. Application of enhancement algorithms to the image
Spectral Signature for Soil

Soil Moisture:
• Moisture content
 A wet soil generally appears
• Organic content darker
• Structure  Increasing soil moisture
content lowers reflectance but
• Iron oxide content did not change shape of the
• Texture curve
Water absorption
band
Hydroxyl absorption
band
Percent Reflectance
Wet soil
Dry soil
Wavelength in nanometer
Organic content:
 A soil with 5% or more organic matter
usually appears black in colour.
 Less decomposed organic materials have
higher reflectance in the near IR region.
 Very high decomposed organic materials
show very low reflectance throughout the
reflective region of the solar spectrum
SOIL – IRON CONTENT

 The presence of iron especially
as iron oxide affects the spectral b
reflectance c
d
 Reflectance in the green region e
d
a
decreases with increased iron d
content, but increases in the red Wavelength in micrometer

region
Representative reflectance spectra of surface samples of 5
 Iron dominated soils have strong minerals soils; (a) High organic content, moderately fine
absorption in mir (> 1.3 m) texture; (b) Low organic, Low iron content; (c) Low organic,
medium iron content; (d) High organic content, moderately
coarse texture and (e) High iron content, fine texture.
Soil structure
 A clay soil tends to have a strong structure, which leads to a
rough surface on ploughing; clay soils also tend to have high
moisture content and as a result have a fairly low diffuse
reflectance.
 Sandy soils also tend to have a low moisture content and a
result have fairly high and often specular reflectance
properties.
Clayey soil Sandy soil

Spectral Signature for Water

 Reflection of Light -
Wavelengths
 Water Depths – Shallow ,
Deep
 Suspended material
 Chlorophyll Content
 Surface Roughness
Spectral Reflectance of Water

 The majority of radiant flux
incident upon water is either
not reflected but is either
absorbed or transmitted.
 In visible wavelengths of EMR,
little light is absorbed, a small
amount, usually below 5% is
reflected and the rest is
transmitted.
 Water absorbs NIR and MIR
strongly leaving little radiation
to be either reflected or
transmitted. This results in
sharp contrast between any
water and land boundaries.
Factors governing spectral Reflectance of

Snow
 GRAIN SIZE (HENCE AGE)
 Reflectance falls at all wavelengths as grain size
increases
 SNOW PACK THICKNESS
 Reflectance of snow decreases as it ages
 LIQUID WATER CONTENT

 Even slightly melting snow reduces reflectance
 CONTAMINANT PRESENT
 Contaminations (soot, particles, etc.) Reduce snow
reflection in the visible region.
 The lines in the figure represent

average reflectance curves
compiled by measuring large
sample features.
 Observe how distinctive the curves

are for each feature.
 The configuration of these curves is

an indicator of the type and
condition of the features to which
they apply.
 Although the reflectance of

individual features will vary
considerably above and below the
average, these curves demonstrate
some fundamental points
concerning spectral reflectance
Band (.45 to .515m) Band (.525 to .605 m) Band (.63 to .690 m)
Band (.75 to .90 m) Band (1.55 to 1.75 m) Band (2.09 to 2.35m)
True Color
Composite (3,2,1)
False Color
Composite (4,3,2)
Landsat ETM (IR R G)

Band Wavelength Principal applications

(μm)
1 0.45 – 0.52 Penetration of clear water: bathymetry; mapping of coastal waters;

(blue) chlorophyll absorption; distinction between deciduous and
coniferous vegetation.
2 0.52 – 0.60 Records the green reflectance peak of vegetation; assesses plant
(green) vigor; reflectance from turbid water.
3 0.63 – 0.69 This band operates in the chlorophyll absorption region and is best
(red) for detecting roads, bare soil.
4 0.76 – 0.90 This band is used to estimate biomass. Although it separates water
(near- bodies from vegetation and discriminates soil moisture, it is not as
infrared) effective as B3 for road identification.
5 1.55 – 1.75 Band 5 is considered to be the best single band overall. It
(mid- discriminates roads, bare soil, and water. It also provides a good
infrared) contrast between different types of vegetation and has excellent
atmospheric and haze penetration. Discriminates snow from
clouds,
6 2.08 – 2.35 This band is useful for discriminating mineral and rock types and
(mid- for interpreting vegetation cover and moisture.
infrared)
Methods of Image Interpretation

 Visual
1. Visual interpretation on a hardcopy image/photograph
2. Visual interpretation on a digital image
 Digital image processing
 Qualitative
Types of interpretation  Quantitative
 Image is a pictorial representation of pattern of landscape.

 Pattern indicates type of objects and their physical, biological, and
cultural relationships
 Similar objects under similar conditions reflect similarly.
 A systematic examination of photos and supporting material.
 Interpretation is made of physical nature of the object.
 Information extracted is proportional to knowledge, skill and experience
of analyst; the methods and equipment used.
Factors governing interpretability

 Training, Experience
 Nature of object or phenomenon
 Quality of photographs
 Equipment and method of interpretation
 Interpretation keys, guides, manuals and other aids
 Prior knowledge of the area.
Methodology depends on………
 Kind of information to be interpreted
 Accuracy of the results to be obtained
 The reference level of the person executing the interpretation
 Kind and type of imagery or photographs available
 Instruments available
 Scale and other requirements of the final map
 External knowledge available and any other surveys in the area.
ACTIVITIES OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION

 Detection Deduction
 Recognition Classification Convergence of evidence
 Analysis Idealization
Data Selection Criteria

Q2. A spectral reflectance curve is a

a. Graph of the number of pixels for each tonal value.
b. Pie chart representing area of landuse classes
c. Graph of the spectral reflectance of an object as a function of
wavelength
ELEMENTS OF IMAGE
INTERPRETATION
 Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation
and information extraction.
 Observing the differences between targets and
their backgrounds involves comparing different
targets based on any, or all, of the visual
elements of –
tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow, and
association.
Tone
 Tone refers to the
relative brightness or
colour of objects in an
image.
 Generally, tone is the
fundamental element
for distinguishing
between different
targets or features.
 Variations in tone also
allows the elements of
shape, texture, and
pattern of objects to be
distinguished.
Shape
 Shape refers to the
general form, structure,
or outline of individual
objects.
 Shape can be a very
distinctive clue for
interpretation.
 Straight edge shapes
typically represent urban or
agricultural (field) targets,
while natural features, such
as forest edges, are
generally more irregular in
shape, except where man
has created a road or clear
cuts.
 Farm or crop land irrigated by rotating sprinkler systems
would appear as circular shapes
Size
 Size of objects in an image is a
function of scale.
 It is important to assess the size
of a target relative to other
objects in a scene, as well as the
absolute size, to aid in the
interpretation of that target.
 A quick approximation of target
size can direct interpretation to
an appropriate result more
quickly.
For example, if an interpreter had to distinguish
zones of land use, and had identified an area with a
number of buildings in it, large buildings such as
factories or warehouses would suggest commercial
property, whereas small buildings would indicate
residential use.
Pattern
 Pattern refers to the spatial
arrangement of visibly
discernible objects.
 Typically an orderly repetition of
similar tones and textures will
produce a distinctive and
ultimately recognizable pattern.
Orchards with evenly spaced trees, and urban streets with

regularly spaced houses are good examples of pattern.
Texture
 Texture refers to the
arrangement and frequency of
tonal variation in particular
areas of an image.
 Texture is one of the most

important elements for
distinguishing features in radar
imagery.
Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the

grey levels change abruptly in a small area, whereas
smooth textures would have very little tonal variation.
Shadow
 Shadow may provide an idea of
the profile and relative height of a
target or targets which could make
identification easier.
 However, shadows can also

reduce or eliminate interpretation in
their area of influence, since targets
within shadows are much less (or
not at all) discernible from their
surroundings.
Association
 Association takes into account
the relationship between other
recognizable objects or features
in proximity to the target of
interest.
 The identification of features that
one would expect to associate
with other features may provide
information to facilitate
identification.
Commercial properties may be associated with proximity to
major transportation routes, whereas residential areas
would be associated with schools, playgrounds, and sports
fields.
Colour and false colour (or colour infrared) Images:

For a normal colour photograph, the layers are sensitive to
blue, green, and red light - the same as our eyes.
Accordingly, these photos appear to us the same way that
our eyes see the environment. The colors resemble those
which would appear to us as "normal" (i.e. trees appear
green, etc.).
Q3. Texture refers to
a. Spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects.
b. The arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular

areas of an image.
a. General form, structure, or outline of individual objects

Landsat image
Boston
Landsat image
Mid-Infrared Image of
Stromboli Island.
Saudi Arabia, Goa city , India

Sensor : IRS1C LISS III Sensor : IRS1D LISS III
• Multispectral image - Marmagoa &
 The circular features indicate Tiswadi areas of Goa state.
sprinkler irrigation systems. • Sedimentation in the River Zuari &
River Mandovi & the red patches
 Red color indicates crop & represent densely vegetated areas.
dark color fallow land. • The Dabolim airport near the town
of Vascodagama (the lower middle
part of the image.)
Sunderbans , India Part of Oman

Sensor : IRS1C WiFS Sensor : IRS1D WiFS
• East Coast of India & Sunderbans. The gulf of Oman is

• Waters in the shallow areas near seen here.
coast - light blue color. The mountains & rocky
• Mangroves are seen in bright red terrain of the area are
color in the wet land areas. seen through WiFS
• The river Hoogly dispersing sensor .
sediments into the sea.
Dhaka , Bangladesh Rome , Italy

Sensor : IRS1C LISS III+PAN
Sensor : IRS1C LISS III+PAN
Image shows part of Rome.

• Image shows part of Dhaka
city. The runways of the 'h'
• Features like stadium & city shaped airport can also be
airport are clearly seen. seen.
Spot multi-Spectral image Industrial Area

Pan-sharpened multi-spectral
Resolution, 70 cm
Roads, rivers, water bodies,
topography and urban areas
can all be distinguished.
This one-meter resolution satellite

image of the Pentagon was
collected on Sept. 7, 2001 by
Space Imaging's IKONOS
satellite, only four days before the
terrorist attack.
This satellite image of the Pentagon

was collected at 11:46 a.m. EDT on
Sept. 12, 2001 by Space Imaging's
IKONOS satellite. The image shows
extensive damage to the western side
and interior rings of the multi-ringed
building. Also visible are the
emergency and rescue vehicles
parked around the helipad.
1 2 1. In the image
identify the
features (1-5)
2. Discuss the
elements of
3 interpretation
used for
identification of
each feature.
5
Manual vs Digital
 Manual interpretation and Digital processing and analysis is

analysis dates back to the early more recent with the advent of
beginnings of remote sensing digital recording of remote
for air photo interpretation. sensing data and the
 Manual interpretation requires development of computers.
little, if any, specialized Digital analysis requires
equipment. specialized, and often
 Manual interpretation is often expensive, equipment.
limited to analyzing only a single  The computer environment is
channel of data or a single more amenable to handling
image at a time.. complex images of several or
 Manual interpretation is a many channels or from several
subjective process, meaning dates.
that the results will vary with  Digital analysis is based on the
different interpreters. manipulation of digital numbers
in a computer and is thus more
objective, generally resulting in
more consistent results.
However, determining the validity and accuracy of the results from
digital processing can be difficult.
 It is important to reiterate that visual and digital

analyses of remote sensing imagery are not
mutually exclusive.
 In most cases, a mix of both methods is usually
employed when analyzing imagery.
 The ultimate decision of the utility and
relevance of the information extracted at the
end of the analysis process, still must be made
by humans.
The material for the presentation has been compiled from

various sources- books, tutorials, lecture notes, several
resources on the www. and Contributions from Ms.Shefali
Agrawal, Ms.Minakshi Kumar & Ms.Poonam S. Tiwari
Contact Details of the Faculty:
Email-
Tel-
Digital Image Processing

Basic Concepts
Mrs. Minakshi Kumar

Scientist “SG”
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Department
Geospatial Technology and Outreach Programme Group
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing
Indian Space Research Organisation
Department of Space, Government of India
Presentation Outline
 Digital Image
 Digital Image Processing
 Image Preprocessing
 Radiometric Errors & Correction
 Line /Column Dropout / Banding
 Haze Correction
 Sun angle Correction
 Geometric Error & Correction
 Rectification
 Resampling
A Picture is worth a thousand words

 Complex and sometimes multiple ideas can be conveyed by a single still image conveying its meaning or essence
more effectively than a mere verbal description.
 Pictures concisely convey information about positions, sizes and inter-relationships between objects.
 Human beings are good at deriving information from such images, because of our innate visual and mental
abilities.
 About 75% of the information received by Human are in pictorial form.
In the present context, the analysis of pictures that employ an overhead perspective, including the radiation not
visible to human eye are considered.
Pictorial Representation
Textual Description:
Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It
is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream, and often
combined with fruits or other ingredients and flavours. It is typically sweetened
with sucrose, corn syrup, cane sugar, beet sugar, and/or other sweeteners.
Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers. The
mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point
of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth,
semi-solid foam that is solid at very low temperatures (<35 °F / 2 °C). It
becomes more malleable as its temperature increases.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_cream
Digital Image Processing Minakshi,PRSD,IIRS 3
What is an Image ?
 An IMAGE is a Pictorial Representation of an object or a scene.
 Forms of Images
 Analog
 Digital

What is a Digital Image ?

 Produced by Electro optical Sensors
 Composed of tiny equal areas, or
picture elements abbreviated as pixels
or pels arranged in a rectangular
array
 With each pixel is associated a
number known as Digital Number(DN)
or Brightness value (BV) or gray level
which is a record of variation in
radiant energy in discrete form.
 An object reflecting more energy • Range of DN Values depend on
records a higher number for itself on Radiometric resolution
the digital image and vice versa. • 0 – Darkest, • 255 – Brightest
(for 8 bit radiometric resolution)
Multi Spectral Remotely Sensed Image

 Digital Images of an area captured in different spectral ranges (bands)
 A pixel is referred by its column, row, band number.


Digital image processing can be defined as the computer manipulation of digital
values contained in an image for the purposes of image correction, image
enhancement and feature extraction.
A digital image processing system consists of computer Hardware (Personal

Computer) and dedicated Image processing software necessary to analyze
digital image data.
Image Processing Software Functionalities

 Data Acquisition/Restoration - Compensates for data errors, i.e Preprocessing
(Radiometric and Geometric)
 Image Enhancement - Alters the visual impact of the image on the
interpreter to improve the information content
 Information Extraction - Utilizes the decision making capability of computers to recognize
and classify pixels on the basis of their signatures

Major Digital Image Processing Systems

Open Source
Commercial  ILWIS (http://www.ilwis.org/index.htm)
 ERDAS IMAGINE  Opticks
http://opticks.org/confluence/display/opticks/Welcome+To+
 ENVI Opticks
 IDRISI  GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System
http://grass.osgeo.org/ )
 ER Mapper
 OSSIM (Open Source Software Image Map
 PCI Geomatica www.ossim.org )
 eCognition  Multispec
https://engineering.purdue.edu/~biehl/MultiSpec/index.html
 MATLAB  QGIS (A Free and Open Source Geographic Information
 Intergraph System http://www.qgis.org/en/site/)

Image Preprocessing
 Remote sensing systems may not function perfectly all the
time.
 The Earth’s atmosphere, land, and water are complex and
do not lend themselves well to being recorded by remote
sensing devices that have constraints such as spatial,
spectral, temporal, and radiometric resolution.
 Consequently, error may creep into the data acquisition
process and can degrade the quality of the remote sensor
data collected.
 The two most common types of error encountered in
remotely sensed data are radiometric and geometric.
 Radiometric and geometric correction of remotely sensed
data are normally referred to as preprocessing
operations because they are performed prior to information
extraction.
Radiometric errors- Causes

 Radiometric errors are caused by detector imbalance and
atmospheric deficiencies.
 Radiometric corrections are also called as cosmetic
corrections and are done to improve the visual
appearance of the image.
 Common radiometric errors
 Periodic line or column drop-outs,
 Line or column striping.
 Random bad pixels (shot noise),
 Partial line or column drop-outs
 Atmospheric errors
Line dropout
 If a detector fails to function this can result in
an entire line or column of data with no
spectral information.
 The bad line or column is commonly called a

line or column drop-out and contains
brightness values equal to zero
Periodic Line Dropout
Partial Line Dropout

Correction for Missing Lines /columns

 It is first necessary to locate each bad line in the dataset.
 A simple thresholding algorithm makes a pass through the dataset and flags
any scan line having a mean brightness value at or near zero.
 Once identified, it is then possible to evaluate the output for a pixel in the
preceding line (BVi –1,j,k) and succeeding line (BVi+1,j,k) and assign the output
pixel (BVi,j,k) in the drop-out line
 Replacement by either the preceding or the succeeding line
BVI,J=BVI,J-1 OR BVI,J=BVI,J+1
BVI,J =missing pixel value of pixel I scan line J
 Averaging of the neighbouring pixel values
BVI,J=(BVI,J-1 + BVI,J+1)/2
 Replacing the line with other highly correlated band.
Line Striping (Banding)

 The response of some of the detectors may shift towards lower or higher end
causing the presence of a systematic horizontal / vertical banding pattern
 Banding is an cosmetic defect and it interferes with the visual appreciation of
the patterns and features on the image
 Variation in gain and offset of each sensor (linear sensor characteristic) as the
sensor deteriorates in time
Striping De-striped

Line striping correction

 A sensor is called ideal when there is a linear relationship
between input and the output.
 Correction uses a linear expression to model the relationship
between input & output values.
 Assumes that mean and standard deviation of data from each
detector should be same.
 Linear sensor model : n sensors
y = a.x + b D (t ) D(t ) n 2 1
a = gain Measured
DN
b = offset
D (t m 2
)
x = input
y = output Input

Atmosphere induced errors

HAZE
 Scattered light reaching the
sensor from the atmosphere
 Additive effect, reducing
CONTRAST
SKYLIGHT
 Scattered light reaching the
sensor after being reflected from
the Earth’s surface
 Multiplicative effect
SUNANGLE
 Time/Seasonal effect changing
the atmospheric path
 Multiplicative effect

Atmospheric Haze Effect
with haze
without haze with haze
DN values of objects in a single band

Object1: DN = 20 DN = 20 + 20
Object2: DN = 40 DN = 40 + 20
Contrast: 40/20 = 2X 60/40 = 1.5 X without haze

Haze Correction- Dark Object Subtraction
Histogram Minimum Method

Assumption: infrared bands are not affected by Haze
 Identify black bodies: clear water and shadow zones with zero
reflectance in the infrared bands
 Identify DN values at shorter wavelength bands of the same pixel
positions. These DN are entirely due to haze
 Subtract the minimum of the DN values related to black bodies of a
particular band from all the pixel values of that band

Sun Angle Correction

 The position of sun relative to earth changes depending on
time of day and day of year.
 Solar elevation angle: Time- and location dependent
 Sun elevation correction accounts for the seasonal position
of the sun relative to the earth
 Image data acquired under different solar illumination
angles need to be normalized to a constant solar position
 In the northern hemisphere the solar elevation angle is
smaller in winter than in summer
 The solar zenith angle is equal to 90 degree minus the
solar elevation angle
 Irradiance varies with the seasonal changes in solar
elevation angle and the changing distance between the
earth and sun
 Correction necessary for mosaicking and change detection
Sun Angle Correction

 Image data acquired under different solar illumination angles are normalized
by calculating pixel brightness values assuming the sun was at the zenith on
each date of sensing.
 The correction is usually applied by dividing each pixel value in a scene by
the sine of the solar elevation angle for the particular time and location of
imaging.
DN
DN ' 
SIN ( )
Two Images with different Sun-angles Corrected Mosaic

Geometric Errors and Corrections

 The transformation of remotely sensed images so that it has
a scale and projections of a map is called geometric
correction.
 It is concerned with placing the reflected, emitted, or back-
scattered measurements or derivative products in their proper
planimetric (map) location so they can be associated with
other spatial information in a geographic information system
(GIS)
 Include correcting for geometric distortions due to sensor-
Earth geometry variations, and conversion of the data to real
world coordinates (e.g. latitude and longitude) on the Earth's
surface

Earth Rotation Effect - Image Offset (skew)

 Sun-synchronous satellites are normally in
fixed orbits that collect a path (or swath) of
imagery as the satellite makes its way from
the north to the south in descending mode.
 Meanwhile, the Earth below rotates on its
axis from west to east making one
complete revolution every 24 hours. This
skews the geometry of the imagery
collected
• Dashed line indicate
shape of distorted
image
• Solid line indicates
restored image
Difference in Geometry
• Shift
• Scale
• Rotation and
• Skew

Rectification
 Is a process of geometrically correcting an image so that it can be
represented on a planar surface , conform to other images or
conform to a map.
 That is it is the process by which geometry of an image is made
planimetric.
 It is necessary when accurate area , distance and direction
measurements are required to be made from the imagery.
 It is achieved by transforming the data from one grid system into
another grid system using a geometric transformation
 Grid transformation is achieved by establishing mathematical
relationship between the addresses of pixels in an image with
corresponding coordinates of those pixels on another image or
map or ground.
Image to Map Rectification Procedure

Two basic operations must be performed to
geometrically rectify a remotely sensed image to
a map coordinate system:
 Geometric Transformation coefficient computation
 The geometric relationship between input pixel location
(row & column) and associated map co-ordinates of the
same point (x,y) are identified.
 Involves selecting Ground Control Points (GCPS) and
fitting polynomial equations using least squares
technique.
 Intensity Interpolation (Resampling)
 A pixel in the rectified image often requires a value from
the input pixel grid that does not fall neatly on a row
and column co-ordinate.
 For this reason resampling mechanism is used to
determine pixel brightness value.
Ground Control Points (GCPs)

A ground control point (GCP) is a location on the
surface of the Earth (e.g., a road intersection) that can
be identified on the imagery and located accurately on a
map.
 There are two distinct sets of coordinates associated
with each GCP:
 source or image coordinates specified in i rows and j
columns, and
 Reference or map coordinates (e.g., x, y measured in
degrees of latitude and longitude, or meters in a Universal
Transverse Mercator projection).

Ground Control Points (GCPs)

 Accurate GCPs are essential for accurate rectification
 Well dispersed GCPs result in more reliable rectification
 GCPs for Large Scale Imagery
 Road intersections, airport runways, towers buildings etc.
 for small scale imagery
 larger features like Urban area or Geological features can be
used
 NOTE : landmarks that can vary (like lakes, other water bodies,
vegetation etc) should not be used.
 Sufficiently large number of GCPs should be selected
 Requires a minimum number depending on the type of
transformation

Polynomial Coordinate transformation

 Polynomial equations are used to convert the source file
coordinates to rectified map coordinates.
 Depending upon the distortions in the imagery, the
number of GCPs used, their location relative to one other,
complex polynomial equations are used.
 The degree of complexity of the polynomial is expressed as
ORDER of the polynomial.
 The order is simply the highest exponent used in the
polynomial

Mathematical Transformations
Linear Transformations/ Affine transformation/ first order
transformation
X = a0 + a1x + a2 y
Y = b0 + b 1 x + b 2 y
where
 X , Y are the Rectified coordinates (output)
 x, y are the source coordinates (input)
 A first order transformation can change
 Location in x and/or y
 Scale in x and/or y
 Skew in x and/or y
 Rotation

Polynomial transformation
 If the coefficients a0 ,a1,a2, b0, b1 and b2 are known then, the
above polynomial can be used to relate and point on map to its
corresponding point on image and vice versa. Hence six
coefficients are required for this transformation (three for X and
three for Y).
 So it requires Minimum THREE GCP’s for solving the above
equation.
 However the error cannot be estimated with three GCP’s alone.
Hence one additional GCP is taken
 Before applying rectification to the entire set of the data, it is
important to determine how well the six coefficients derived from
the least square regression of the initial GCPs account for the
geometric distortion in the input image.
Accuracy of transformation
 In this method, we check how good do selected points fit between the map
and the Image?
 To solve linear polynomials we first take four GCP’s to compute the six
coefficients. Its source coordinates in the original input image are say xi and
yi. The position of the same points in reference map in degrees, feet or
meters are say x,y
 Now, if we input the map x,y values for the first GCP back into the linear
polynomial equation with all the coefficients in the place, we would get the
computed or retransformed xr and yr values , which are supposed to be
location of this point in input image
 Ideally measured and computed values should be equal.
 In reality this does not happen.

Root Mean Square (RMS) error

 Accuracy is measured by computing Root Mean Square Error (RMS error)
for each of the ground control point
 RMS error is the distance between the input (source or measured) location
of a GCP and the retransformed (or computed) location for the same GCP.
 RMS error is computed with a Euclidean Distance Equation.
Where
 xi and yi are the input
source coordinates and
 xr and yr are the
retransformed coordinates

Acceptable RMS error

 The amount of RMS error that is tolerated can be thought of as a window
around each source coordinate, inside which a retransformed coordinate is
considered to be correct.
 Acceptable RMS error depends upon the
 End use of the data
 The type of data being used, and
 The accuracy of the GCP and the ancillary data.
 Normally an RMS error of less than 1 per GCP and a total RMS error of less
than half a pixel (0.5) is acceptable

Intensity Interpolation (Resampling)

 Once an image is warped, DNs are to be assigned to the “new”
pixels?
 Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the grid
for the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that new data
file values for the output file can be calculated.
 This process involves filling the rectified output grid with brightness
values extracted from a location in the input image and its
reallocation in the appropriate coordinate location in the rectified
output image.
 This results in input line and columns numbers as real
numbers ( and not integers)
 When this occurs, methods of assigning Brightness values are
 Nearest Neighbour
 Bilinear
 Cubic
Nearest Neighbor
 The nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest
input pixel for the output pixel value.
 The pixel value occupying the closest image file coordinate to
the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value
in the georeferenced image.

Nearest Neighbor
ADVANTAGES:
 Output values are the original input values. Other methods of
resampling tend to average surrounding values. This may be
an important consideration when discriminating between
vegetation types or locating boundaries.
 Since original data are retained, this method is recommended
before classification.
 Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Produces a choppy, "stair-stepped" effect. The image has a
rough appearance relative to the original unrectified data.
 Data values may be lost, while other values may be
duplicated.
Bilinear Interpolation
 The bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the nearest
four pixels to the output pixel.
4
Zk where Zk are the surrounding four data point values, and
 2
k 1 Dk
D 2 are the distances squared from the point in question
k
BVwt  4 (x’, y’) to the these data points.
1
D
k 1
2
 ADVANTAGES:
 Stair-step effect caused by the nearest
k
neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks
smooth.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Alters original data and reduces contrast by
averaging neighboring values together.
 Is computationally more extensive than
nearest neighbor.

Cubic Convolution
 The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest
sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear
interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of
surrounding input pixel values is more dramatic.
16
Zk
 2
k 1 Dk
where Zk are the surrounding four data
point values, and D2k are the distances
BVwt  16
1 squared from the point in question (x’, y’)
 2
k 1 Dk
to the these data points.
 ADVANTAGES:
 Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor
approach is reduced. Image looks smooth.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging
neighboring values together.
 Is computationally more expensive than nearest
neighbor or bilinear interpolation.


Input Image
Rectified Image

Discussion / Query
Thank You

Image Enhancement Techniques
Mrs. Minakshi Kumar

Scientist “SG”
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Department
Geospatial Technology and Outreach Programme Group
Indian Space Research Organisation
Department of Space, Government of India
Outline
 Lecture Title- Digital Image Processing-

Image Enhancement Techniques
 Contrast Enhancement
 Spatial Enhancement (Filtering)
 Image Transformations
Image Enhancement Techniques Minakshi,PRSD, IIRS 2

Image Enhancement
 Modification of an image to alter its impact on viewer
 Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual interpretation and
understanding of imagery.
 Process of making an image more interpretable for a
particular application
 Useful since many satellite images give inadequate
information for image interpretation.
 In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion of
the available range of digital values
 Attempted after image is corrected for distortions.
 May be performed temporarily or permanently.
Enhancement Types
 Point Operations
 Modification of brightness values of each pixel in an image data set
independently. ( radiometric enhancement)
 Brings out contrast in the image
 Local operations
 Modification of pixel values based on the values of surrounding pixels.
(spatial enhancement)
 Image Transformations
 enhancing images by transforming the values of each pixel on a
multiband basis (spectral enhancement )

CONTRAST
• Amount of difference between average gray level of an object
and that of surroundings
• Difference in illumination or grey level values in an image or
• Intuitively, how vivid or washed-out an image appears
• Ratio of Maximum Intensity to Minimum Intensity
• Larger the ratio more easy it is to interpret the image
Reasons for Low Contrast

• Scene itself has low contrast ratio CON  BVMax / BVMin
• Sensitivity of Detectors
• Atmospheric Scattering
Why is it needed to contrast stretch?
Band2
Band4
FCC (4,2,1)
Band1

Contrast Enhancement
 Expands the original input values to make use of the total
range of the sensitivity of the display device.
 The density values in a scene are literally pulled farther apart, that
is, expanded over a greater range.
 The effect is to increase the visual contrast between two areas of
different uniform densities.
 This enables the analyst to discriminate easily between areas
initially having a small difference in density.
Types
 Linear - Input and Output Data Values follow a linear relationship
 Non Linear- Input and output are related via a transformation function
Y = ƒ(x)
Linear Contrast Stretch

 A DN in the low range of the original histogram is assigned to extreme black, and
a value at the high end is assigned to extreme white.
 The remaining pixel values are distributed linearly between these two extremes
255
Y = ax + b
grey
shade min DN max DN
0
0 DN 255
Transfer Function
Stretching between 0-255

Transfer Function – Non Linear Stretch
Logarithmic Stretch
 In this process the logarithmic values of the input
data are linearly stretched to get the desired
output values.
 It is a two step process. In the first step we find
out the log values of the input DN values.
 In the second step the log values are linearly
stretched to fill the complete range of DN no. (0-
255).
 Logarithmic stretch has greatest impact on the
brightness values found in the darker part of the
histogram or on the low DN values.
Histogram Equalisation
 In this technique, histogram of the
original image is redistributed to
produce a uniform population density.
This is obtained by grouping certain
adjacent gray values.
Thus the number of gray levels in
the enhance image is less than the
number of gray levels in the original
image.
Contrast is increased at the most
populated range of brightness values
of the histogram (or "peaks").
It automatically reduces the contrast
in very light or dark parts of the image
associated with the tails of a normally
distributed histogram
Original Image Linear Stretch Histogram Equalised

Local Operations
 pixel value is modified based on the values surrounding it.
 Spatial Filtering - is the process of dividing the image into its constituent
spatial frequencies, and selectively altering certain spatial frequencies to
emphasize some image features.
 Process of suppressing (de-emphasizing) certain spatial frequencies &
passing (emphasizing) others.
• This technique increases
the analyst’s ability to
discriminate detail.
Low Frequency Details
• used for enhancing certain
features
High Frequency Details • removal of noise.
• Smoothening of image

Filters Convolution ( Filtering Technique)

 are Algorithms for filtering Process of evaluating the weighted

neighbouring pixel values located in a
 Composed of
particular spatial pattern around the i,j,
 Window mask /Kernal / Convolution
mask and location in input image.
 Constants (Weights given to mask) Technique
 Mask size 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, 9x9………  Mask window is placed over part of image
ex. Square mask  Convolution Formula is applied over the part

of image (Sum of the Weighted product is
1 1 1 obtained (coefficient of mask x raw DN
1 1 1 value)/ sum of coefficients)
 Central value replaced by the output value
1 1 1
 Window shifted by one pixel & procedure is
repeated for the entire image.

Convolution Process
Input Image
10 15 20 22 11 18 14 10
c1 15
c2 20
c3 22 11 18 14
c1 c2 c3
15 12 12 20 12 21 12 c4 c5 c6 15
c4 12
c5 12
c6 20 12 21 12
c7 c8 c9
12 12 14 12 12 14 22 12
c7 12
c8 14
c9 12 12 14 22
12 15 12 12 20 15 12 Filter 12 15 12 12 20 15 12
15 20 14 12 12 14 20 15 20 14 12 12 14 20
12 12 12 15 12 12 12 12 12 12 15 12 12 12
12 15 12 14 12 15 12 12 15 12 14 12 15 12
Input Image
Step 1 : Window mask is placed over
part of Image

Convolution Process
Step 2 : Central Pixel values is calculated based on its

neighbouring values Step 3: Central Pixel Value is replaced by the new
value and window is shifted by one pixel to the right
and the entire process is repeated

Filter Types
 Low Pass Filters
 block high frequency details
 has a smoothening effect on images.
 Used for removal of noise
 Removal of “salt & pepper” noise
Blurring of image especially at edges.

Mode filter 3x3 5x5
Original Image Mean filter 3x3 5x5 Median filter 3x3 5x5
High Pass Filtering

• Preserves high frequencies and Removes slowly varying components
• Emphasizes fine details
• Used for edge detection and enhancement
• Edges - Locations where transition from one category to other occurs
 Types
 Linear
 output brightness value is a function of linear combination of BV’s located in a particular spatial
pattern around the i,j location in the input image
 Non Linear
 use non linear combinations of pixels
 Edge Detection - Background is lost
 Edge Enhancement
 Delineates Edges and makes the shapes and details more prominent
 background is not lost.

Laplace Filter
Original Image
3x3 Laplace Edge Detector Horizontal Filter
Additional Edge Detector Masks

Forward Diagonal
3x3 Laplace Edge Filter
Vertical Filter
Enhancement

Image Transformation Image Division

 Image transformations typically  The most common transforms applied to image data.
involve the manipulation of  On a pixel-by-pixel basis carry out the following
multiple bands of data, whether operation
from a single multispectral image  Band1/Band2 = New band
or from two or more images of  resultant data are then rescaled to fill the
the same area acquired at range of display device

different times (i.e.  Very popular technique, commonly called ‘Band Ratio’
multitemporal image data). Mathematically BVi,j,r = BVi,j,k / BVi,j,l

Where
 Either way, image
BVi,j,k Brightness value at the location line i,
transformations generate "new" pixel j in k band of imagery
images from two or more BVi,j,l Brightness value at the same location in
sources which highlight particular band l
features or properties of interest, BVi,j,r Ratio value at the same location
better than the original input (Note: If Denominator is 0 (zero) then Denominator BV is
images made 1)

Reasons / Application of Ratios

 Undesirable effects on recorded radiances (e.g. variable illumination) caused
by variations in topography.
 Sometimes differences in BV’s from identical surface material are caused by topographic
slope and aspect, shadows or seasonal changes
 These conditions hamper the ability of an interpreter to correctly identify surface material
or land use in a remotely sensed image.
 Ratio transformations can be used to reduce the effects of such environmental
conditions Which bands to Ratio
12 3 4 5 7

Commonly used Vegetation Indices

 A Vegetation Index (VI) is a
spectral transformation of two
or more bands designed to
enhance the contribution of
vegetation properties in a pixel
 Vegetation Index or Ratio
Vegetation Index
RVI = IR / R
 Normalized Differential
Vegetation Index
NDVI = (IR - R)/(IR + R)

More Indices
Acronym Index Feature Highlighted
MNDWI Modified Normalized Difference Water Index water, shadow
(GREEN-SWIR) /(GREEN +SWIR)
NDWI Normalized Difference Water Index Water, built-up
((GREEN-NIR)/(GREEN+NIR)
NWI New Water Index Water, built-up ,shadow
(B1-(B5+B7+B4))/(B1+(B4+B5+B7))*C
NDPI Normalized Difference Pond Index Water and Shadow
(SWIR-GREEN)/(SWIR+GREEN
SI Shadow Index Shadow and water in lower threshold
(256- GREEN)(256- RED )^1/2
NDBI normalised difference built-up index Built-up and wetlands
(MIR-NIR)/(MIR+NIR)
Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

 Different bands of multispectral
data are often highly correlated
and thus contain similar
information.
 We need to Transforms the original
satellite bands into new “bands”
that express the greatest amount
of variance (information) from the
feature space of the original bands
 PCA is accomplished by a linear
transformation of variables that
corresponds to a translation and
rotation of the original coordinate
system
PCA- Graphical Conceptualization

Principal Component Analysis

Composite PC Image
 Forest appears green,
river bed in blue, water
in Red – orange ,
vegetation appears in
varying shades of green
and fallow agriculture
field as pink to magenta
Color Composite PC1,PC2,PC3

IMAGE FUSION
 Most of the sensors operate in two modes: multispectral mode and the
panchromatic mode.
 The panchromatic mode corresponds to the observation over a broad spectral
band (similar to a typical black and white photograph) and
 the multispectral (color) mode corresponds to the observation in a number of
relatively narrower band.
 Usually the multispectral mode has a better spectral resolution than the
panchromatic mode.
 Most of the satellite sensors are such that the panchromatic mode has a better
spatial resolution than the multispectral mode,
 Better is the spatial resolution, more detailed information about a landuse is
present in the imagery
 To combine the advantages of spatial and spectral resolutions of two
different sensors, image fusion techniques are applied

Techniques of pixel based fusion
 Band substitution
 Numerical
 (Brovey Transform)
 Multiplicative
 Statistical (PCA)
 Color space transformations (RGB, IHS)

Panchromatic Image - 1 m spatial resolution, IKONOS

(846 by 641)
Multispectral Image - 4 m spatial resolution, IKONOS

212 by 161
Merged PAN+ Multispectral

THANK YOU
CLASSIFICATION
ACCURACY
ASSESEMENT and
Change detection
POONAM S. TIWARI
Accuracy Assessment……
Accuracy assessment is a general term for comparing the classification to

geographical data that are assumed to be true, in order to determine the accuracy
of the classification process. Usually, the assumed-true data are derived from
ground truth data.
Accuracy Assessment
Because it is not practical to test every pixel in the classification image, a
representative sample of reference points in the image with known class
values is used
Sources of Errors
Ground Reference Test pixels
Locate ground reference test pixels (or polygons if the classification is based on human
visual interpretation) in the study area.
• These sites are not used to train the classification algorithm and therefore represent
unbiased reference information.
• It is possible to collect some ground reference test information prior to the
classification, perhaps at the same time as the training data.
• Most often collected after the classification using a random sample to collect the
appropriate number of unbiased observations per class.
Accuracy assessment “best practices”
 30-50 reference points per class is ideal
 Reference points should be derived from imagery or data acquired at or near the
same time as the classified image
 If no other option is available, use the original image to visually evaluate the
reference points (effective for generalized classification schemes)
Sample Size
Sample size N to be used to assess the accuracy of a land-use classification map
for the binomial probability theory:
Z 2 ( p)( q)
N
P - expected percent accuracy, E2
q = 100 – p,
E - allowable error,
Z = 2 (from the standard normal deviate of 1.96 for the 95% two-sided confidence
level).
Sample Size
For a sample for which the expected accuracy is 85% at an allowable
error of 5% (i.e., it is 95% accurate), the number of points necessary
for reliable results is:
2
2 (85)(15)
N 2
 a minimum of 203 points.
5
With expected map accuracies of 85% and an acceptable
error of 10%, the sample size for a map would be 51:
2
2 (85 )(15 )
N 2
 51 points
10
Sample Design
There are basically five common sampling
designs used to collect ground reference test
data for assessing the accuracy of a remote
sensing–derived thematic map:
1. random sampling,
2. systematic sampling,
3. stratified random sampling,
4. stratified systematic unaligned
sampling, and
5. cluster sampling.
Commonly Used Methods of Generating Reference Points

• Random: no rules are used; created using a completely random process
• Stratified random: points are generated proportionate to the distribution
of classes in the image
• Equalized random: each class has an equal number of random points
Commonly Used Methods of Generating Reference Points

• With a “stratified random” sample, a minimum number of reference
points in each class is usually specified (i.e., 30)
• For example, a 3 class image (80% forest, 10% urban, 10% water) & 30
reference points:
• completely random: 30 forest, 0 urban, 1 water
• stratified random: 24 forest, 3 urban, 3 water
• equalized random: 10 forest, 10 urban, 10 water
ERROR MATRIX
Once a classification has been sampled a contingency table (also referred to as
an error matrix or confusion matrix) is developed.
 This table is used to properly analyze the validity of each class as well as the
classification as a whole.
 In this way the we can evaluate in more detail the efficacy of the
classification.
One way to assess accuracy is to go out in the field and observe the actual land class at a sample
of locations, and compare to the land classification it was assigned on the thematic map.
 There are a number of ways to quantitatively express the amount of agreement between the
ground truth classes and the remote sensing classes.
 One way is to construct a confusion error matrix, alternatively called a error matrix
 This is a row by column table, with as many rows as columns.
 Each row of the table is reserved for one of the information, or remote sensing classes used by
the classification algorithm.
 Each column displays the corresponding ground truth classes in an identical order.
OVERALL ACCURACY
 The diagonal elements tally the number of pixels classified correctly in each
class.
 But just because 83% classifications were accurate overall, does not mean
that each category was successfully classified at that rate.
USERS ACCURACY
 A user of the imagery who is particularly interested in class A, say, might wish
to know what proportion of pixels assigned to class A were correctly assigned.
 In this example 35 of the 39 pixels were correctly assigned to class A, and the
user accuracy in this category of 35/39 = 90%
PRODUCERS ACCURACY
 Contrasted to user accuracy is producer accuracy, which has a slightly different
interpretation.
 Producers accuracy is a measure of how much of the land in each category
was classified correctly.
 It is found, for each class or category, as
The Producer’s accuracy for class A is 35/50 = 70%

Kappa Analysis
Khat Coefficient of Agreement:
• Kappa analysis yields a statistic, K̂ , which is an estimate of Kappa.
• It is a measure of agreement or accuracy between the remote sensing–
derived classification map and the reference data as indicated by a) the
major diagonal, and b) the chance agreement, which is indicated by the row
and column totals (referred to as marginals).
Kappa Coefficient
• Expresses the proportionate reduction in error generated by the
classification in comparison with a completely random process.
• A value of 0.82 implies that 82% of the errors of a random classification
are being avoided
Kappa Coefficient
The Kappa coefficient is not as sensitive to differences in sample sizes
between classes and is therefore considered a more reliable measure of
accuracy; Kappa should always be reported
A Kappa of 0.8 or above is considered a good classification; 0.4 or below is
r r
considered poor
M  n ij  n n i j
ˆ i j 1 i j 1
K r
M2 n n i j
i j 1
Where:
r = number of rows in error matrix
nij = number of observations in row i, column j
ni = total number of observations in row i
nj =  of observations in column j
total number
M = total number of observations in matrix
Kappa Coefficient
classified image
forest shrubland grassland urban totals

reference data
forest 150 5 15 10 180

shrubland 15 55 5 5 80
grassland 10 20 105 5 140
urban 25 20 5 50 100
totals 200 100 130 70 500
r r
M  n ij  n n i j
ˆ i j 1 i j 1 (500  360)  [(180  200)  (80  100)  (140  130)  (100  70)]
K r 
M2 n n i j 500  [(180  200)  (80  100)  (140  130)  (100  70)]
2
i j 1
180,000  69,200 110,800
 
250,000  69,200 180,800

 0.613
KAPPA COEFFICENT
For an error matrix with r rows, and hence the same number of
columns, let – A = the sum of r diagonal elements, which is the
numerator in the computation of overall accuracy. Let B = sum of
the r products (row total x column total).Then
where N is the number of pixels in the error matrix

(the sum of all r individual cell values).
For the above error matrix,

– A = 35 + 37 + 41 = 113
– B = (39 * 50) + (50 * 40) + (47 *
46) = 6112
– N = 136
Change Detection
Methods and Procedures
CHANGE DETECTION
• The process of identifying differences in the state of an object or
phenomenon by observing it at different times.
• Usually applied to Earth surface changes at two or more times.
• Land-use/land-cover change - a major component of global change with an
impact perhaps greater than that of climate change.
• It provides the foundation for better understanding relationships and
interactions between human and natural phenomena to better manage and use
resources.
• It involves the application of multi-temporal datasets for quantitative
analysis of the temporal effects of the phenomenon.
Applications of change detection techniques

• Land-use and land-cover (LULC) change
• Forest or vegetation change
• Forest mortality, defoliation and damage assessment
• Deforestation, regeneration and selective logging
• Wetland change
• Forest fire and fire-affected area detection
• Landscape change
• Urban change
• Environmental change, drought monitoring, flood monitoring, monitoring
coastal marine environments, desertification, and detection of landslide areas
• Other applications such as crop monitoring, shifting cultivation monitoring, road
segments, and change in glacier mass balance.
Considerations before implementing change

detection
The following conditions must be satisfied:
1. Precise registration of multi-temporal images.
2. Precise radiometric and atmospheric calibration or normalization between multi-

temporal images.
3. Selection of the same spatial and spectral resolution images if possible.
Note:
Digital change detection is affected by spatial, spectral, radiometric and temporal constraints.
Change detection techniques :

1. Algebra Based Approach 4. Advanced Models 7. Other Change Detection
• Image differencing • Li-Strahler Reflectance Techniques
• image regression Model • Measures of spatial dependence
• image ratioing • Spectral Mixture Model
• Vegetation index differencing • Knowledge-based vision system
• Biophysical Parameter
• change vector analysis Method • Area production method
2. Classification Based • Combination of three indicators:
• Post-Classification Comparison 5. GIS based vegetation indices, land surface
• Spectral-Temporal Combined • Integrated GIS and RS temperature, and spatial structure
Analysis Method • Change curves
• EM Transformation • GIS Approach
• Unsupervised Change Detection • Generalized linear models
• Hybrid Change Detection 6. Visual Analysis • Curve-theorem-based approach
• Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) • Visual Interpretation • Structure-based approach
3. Transformation
• Spatial statistics-based method
• PCA
• Tasseled Cap (KT)
• Gramm-Schmidt (GS)
• Chi-Square
Category I: Algebra based Approach

• These algorithms have a common characteristic, i.e. selecting thresholds to determine the changed areas.
• The algebra category includes-

1. Image differencing
2. Image regression
3. Image rationing
4. Vegetation index differencing
5. Change vector analysis (CVA)
6. Background subtraction
• These methods (excluding CVA) are relatively simple, straightforward, easy to implement and interpret, but
these cannot provide complete matrices of change information.
• In this category, two aspects are critical for the change detection results: selecting suitable image bands,
selecting suitable thresholds.
Image differencing Date 1

 Characteristics: Subtracts the first date image imagery
from a second-date image, pixel by pixel.
Date 2
 Advantages: - (difference) imagery
 Simple and straightforward, easy to interpret results.
 Efficient way to detect change
 Requires only one classification
 Disadvantages:
 Cannot provide a detailed change matrix
(“From-to” change information is not available) Difference
images
 Requires careful definition of “change - no change” threshold
(differences in DN values due to other factors such as phenology,
sun angle, atmosphere or sensors differences are
not “real” changes)
Image classification
 Requires acquisition of comparable imagery and
careful radiometric calibration such that where there are no
changes in land cover the images are near identical (i.e., difference
equals zero)
“Change” map
 Key factors: Identifies suitable image bands and thresholds.

Image differencing
Image regression
 Characteristics: Establishes relationships between bi-
temporal images, then estimates pixel values of the second-
date image by use of a regression function, subtracts the
regressed image from the first-date image.
 Advantages: Reduces impacts of the atmospheric, sensor and

environmental differences between two-date images.
 Disadvantages: Requires to develop accurate regression

functions for the selected bands before implementing change
detection.
 Examples: Tropical forest change (Singh 1986) and forest

conversion (Jha and Unni 1994).
 Key factors: Develops the regression function; identifies

suitable bands and thresholds
Image ratioing
 Characteristics: Calculates the ratio of registered images
of two dates, band by band.
 Advantages: Reduces impacts of Sun angle, shadow and

topography.
 Disadvantages: Non-normal distribution of the result is

often criticized.
 Examples: Land-use mapping and change detection

(Prakash and Gupta 1998).
 Key factors: Identifies the image bands and thresholds.

Vegetation index differencing

 Characteristics: Produces vegetation index separately, then subtracts the second-date vegetation index
from the first-date vegetation index.
 Advantages: Emphasizes differences in the spectral response of different features and reduces impacts of
topographic effects and illumination.
 Disadvantages: Enhances random noise or coherence noise.
 Key factors: Identifies suitable vegetation index and thresholds.
.
Background subtraction
 Characteristics:
 Non-change areas have slowly varying background grey levels.
 A low-pass filtered variant of the original image is used to approximate the variations to the background
image.
 A new image is produced through subtracting the background image from the original image.
 Advantages: Easy to implement.
 Disadvantages: Low accuracy.
 Key factors: Develops the background image.
Change vector analysis (CVA)

Characteristics: Generates two outputs:
(1) the spectral change vector describes the direction and magnitude of change
from the first to the second date; and
(2) the total change magnitude per pixel is computed by determining the
Euclidean distance between end points through n-dimensional change space.
Advantages: Ability to process any number of spectral bands desired and to

produce detailed change detection information.
Disadvantages: Difficult to identify land cover change trajectories.
Key factors: Defines thresholds and identifies change trajectories

Change vector analysis (CVA)

Category II: Transformation of datasets

• PCA
• Tasseled Cap (KT)
• Gramm-Schmidt (GS)
• Chi-Square
1. Principal component analysis (PCA)

 Assumes that multi-temporal data are highly correlated and change information can be highlighted in the
new components.
 Two ways to apply PCA for change detection are:
(1) Put two or more dates of images into a single file, then perform PCA and analyse the minor
component images for change information.
(2) Perform PCA separately, then subtract the second-date PC image from the corresponding PC image of
the first date.
Principal component analysis (PCA)

 Advantages: Reduces data redundancy between bands and emphasizes different information in the derived
components.
 Disadvantages:
 PCA is scene dependent, thus the change detection results between different dates are often difficult to
interpret and label.
 It cannot provide a complete matrix of change class information and requires determining thresholds to
identify the changed areas.
 Key factors: Analyst’s skill in identifying which component best represents the change and selecting
thresholds.
Tasselled cap (KT)

 The principle of this method is similar to PCA.
 The only difference from PCA is that PCA depends on the image scene, and KT
transformation is independent of the scene.
 The change detection is implemented based on the three components:
brightness, greenness and wetness.
 Advantages: Reduces data redundancy between bands and emphasizes different

information in the derived components. KT is scene independent.
 Disadvantages: Difficult to interpret and label change information, cannot

provide a complete change matrix; requires determining thresholds to identify
the changed areas. Accurate atmospheric calibration for each date of image is
required.
 Key factors: Analyst’s skill is needed in identifying which component best

represents the change and selecting thresholds.
Gramm– Schmidt (GS)

 The GS method orthogonalizes spectral vectors taken directly from bi-temporal images, as
does the original KT method, produces three stable components corresponding to multi-
temporal analogues of KT brightness, greenness and wetness, and a change component.
 Advantages: The association of transformed components with scene characteristics allows the
extraction of information that would not be accessible using other change detection
techniques.
 Disadvantages:
 It is difficult to extract more than one single component related to a given type of change.
 The GS process relies on selection of spectral vectors from multi-date image typical of
the type of change being examined.
 Key factors: Initial identification of the stable subspace of the multi-date data is required.
Chi-square
 Y: digital value of change image
X: vector of the difference of the six digital values between the two dates
M: vector of the mean residuals of each band
T: transverse of the matrix,
Σ−1 : inverse covariance matrix of the six bands
 Advantages: Multiple bands are simultaneously considered to produce a single change

image.
 Disadvantages: The assumption that a value of Y=0 represents a pixel of no change is not
true when a large portion of the image is changed.
 Also the change related to specific spectral direction is not readily identified.
 Key factors: Y is distributed as a Chi-square random variable with p degrees of freedom

( p is the number of bands).
Category III: Classification based approach
1.Post-Classification Comparison
2.Spectral-Temporal Combined Analysis
3.EM Transformation
4.Unsupervised Change Detection
5.Hybrid Change Detection
6.Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
Post-classification
• Post-classification (delta classification)
– Classify Date 1 and Date 2 separately, compare
class values on pixel by pixel basis between dates
• Advantages:
– Avoids need for strict radiometric calibration
– Favours classification scheme of user
– Designates type of change occurring
• Disadvantages:
– Error is multiplicative from two parent maps
– Changes within classes may be interesting
Comparison of Classifications
Date 1 imagery
 Two dates are Classification

classified of Date 1
separately
Date 2 imagery
Classification
of Date 2
Comparison of Date 1 imagery
Classifications
 Two dates are Classification
of Date 1
classified separately
Date 2 imagery
 Classification map of Date 2 is

then subtracted from the map Classification
of Date 1 of Date 2
minus
Classification
of Date 1
“Change” map
Comparison of Classifications
 Advantages
 provides “from - to” change class information
 next base year is already completed
 Disadvantages
 accuracy of change map depends on the accuracy of the
individual classifications
 requires two classifications
Unsupervised techniques
► Objective
Produce a change detection map in which changed
areas are separated from unchanged ones.
► The changes sought are assumed to result in larger

changes in radiance values than other factors.
► Comparison is performed directly on the spectral

data.
► This results in a difference image which is

analysed to separate insignificant from significant
changes.
Supervised techniques
Objective:
Generate a change detection map where changed areas
are identified and the land-cover transition type can be
identified.
The changes are detected and labelled using

supervised classification approaches.
 Main techniques:
• Post-classification comparison
• Multi-date direct classification
Post-classification comparison
► Standard supervised classifiers are used to classify the
two images independently.
► Changes are detected by comparing the two classified

images.
► Advantage
▪ Common and intuitive.
▪ Provides change matrix.
► Drawback
▪ Critically depends on the accuracy of the classification
maps. Accuracy close to the product of the two results.
▪ Does not exploit the dependence between the information
from the two points in time.
Post-classification comparison
Multi-date direct classification

► Two dates are combined into one multi-temporal image and
classified.
► Performs joint classification of the two images by using a
stacked feature vector.
► Change detection is performed by considering each transition
as a class, and training the classifier to recognize all classes and
all transitions.
► Advantage
▪ Exploits the multi-temporal information.
▪ Error rate not cumulative.
▪ Provides change matrix.
► Drawback
▪ Ground truth required also for transitions
Supervised v/s Unsupervised

Other Advanced approaches

An MRF approach to unsupervised change detection
• Based on a technique that exploits the expectation-maximization (EM)
algorithm for the estimation of the density functions associated with both the
changed and unchanged pixels in the difference image.
• Then, on the basis of such estimates, an automatic method for the unsupervised
analysis of the difference image is described.
• The method makes use of Markov random fields (MRFs) for modelling the
spatial-contextual information included in the neighbourhood of each pixel.
Markov Chain Analysis Cellular Automata

• A technique for predictive change • Creates a “spatially-explicit weighting
modeling. factor.
• Predictions of future change are based on • Weighting factor applied to each of the
changes that have occurred in the past. suitabilities, weighing more heavily areas
• It ignores the forces and processes that that are in proximity to existing land uses
produced the observed patterns. • Ensures that landuse change occurs in
• It assumes that the forces that produced proximity to existing like landuse classes,
the changes will continue to do so in the and not in a wholly random manner
future. • Adds spatial contiguity as well as
• Insensitive to space knowledge of the likely spatial distribution
of transitions to Markov change analysis.
•Markov model is capable of accurate measurement of the magnitude of change but fails in
predicting the direction of change
• Cellular Automata (CA) incorporates the spatial component and thus includes direction into
modeling process.
Change detection of remote sensing images :

DT-CWT AND MRF
• An unsupervised algorithm is proposed based on the combination between Dual-tree
Complex Wavelet Transform (DT-CWT) and Markov random Field (MRF) model.
• This method first performs multi-scale decomposition for the difference image by the
DT-CWT and extracts the change characteristics in high-frequency regions by using a
MRF-based segmentation algorithm.
• Then this method estimates the final maximum a posterior (MAP) according to the
segmentation algorithm of iterative condition model (ICM) based on fuzzy c-
means(FCM) after reconstructing the high-frequency and low-frequency sub-bands of
each layer respectively.
• Finally, the method fuses the above segmentation results of each layer by using the
fusion rule proposed to obtain the mask of the final change detection result.
Remote Sensing Image Change Detection based on Swarm

Intelligence Algorithms
• Ant colony optimization (ACO) and Particle swarm optimization
(PSO) as the two main algorithms of swarm intelligence.
• Properties of self-organization, cooperation, communication and

other intelligent merits, they have great potential for research .
• Algorithms for constructing the change rules, then use these rules to
process the data.
Analyzing Nature of Change
•Nature of change can be assessed by analyzing the change trajectories in land cover classes over
time.
•These trajectories are described as trends over time which is responsible for changes in earth
resource dynamics in a particular area .
•Trajectories of land-cover change are generated which refer to successive land-cover types for a
given pixel over period of observation.
Analyzing Spatial Pattern of Change
•Knowledge of
•Changes occurred at particular location
•the reason for such changes
•the rate at which the changes have occurred
•the future scenario if driving forces operate at same pace
All possible change trajectories

corresponding to different LULC classes
Quiz Time…….
In Stratified random sampling:

 points are generated proportionate to the distribution of classes in the image
 each class has an equal number of random points
 no rules are used; points created using a completely random process
Kappa Coefficient expresses:
 Correctly classified pixels in the image
 what proportion of pixels assigned to a class were correctly assigned
 how much of the land in each category was classified correctly
 the proportionate reduction in error generated by the classification in comparison with a completely random
process
Image rationing:
 Subtracts the first date image from a second-date image
 Calculates the ratio of registered images of two dates, band by band
 Generates the spectral change vector describes the direction and magnitude of change
THANKYOU
Faculty Profile : Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj
He is Scientist/Engineer-‘SF’ at Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing Department, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
Dehradun. He is a graduate in Civil Engg. from M.R.E.C. (present
MNIT), Jaipur; M.Tech. (Remote Sensing) from BIT, Ranchi & PhD
from Civil Engg. Dept., IIT-Roorkee. He joined ISRO in 2001 after
a brief career as faculty at Dept. of Civil Engg., BITS, Pilani.
• He has been engaged in industry, teaching and research in Surveying,
Photogrammetry, GNSS, Cartography, Remote Sensing and topographic
modelling for the past 20 years. He has published over 50 research papers
in Journals and conferences. He has widely contributed to various
departmental projects on remote sensing and Mapping at NRSC and IIRS.
• He has received appreciation from the Ministry of Planning and National
Development (MPND), Republic of Maldives for rendering expert services
for GPS ground control survey in the National Mapping Project (Maldives).
ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9241-5427
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN
Satellite Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite System
&
GPS receivers, surveying
techniques, processing methods,
errors and accuracy
Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj
Scientist/Engineer-’SF’, PRSD (GT&OP Group)
ashutosh@iirs.gov.in
History of Mapping and Surveying

• First Maps were mental maps used for navigation.
• Indus Valley civilization had a system of underground drainage.
• About 5000 years ago the Babylonians produced property descriptions and simple property maps
on stone tablets.
• First known surveying by ancient Egyptians- used to reestablish property corners destroyed by
flooding of R. Nile.
• About 2000-2500 years ago Greeks and Romans surveyed and mapped their new settlements
with a great degree of precision using methods that changed very little up to this century.
• Instruments: Chain, Tape, Theodolites, Compass, Levels, EDM, TS, GPS/GNSS
• Classical Methods- Triangulation/trilateration: 19th 20th Cen..
• Oct. / Nov. 1957: Launch of SPUTNIK-1 & -2
• Jan. 1958: Launch of Explorer-1:
• 1958: Earth’s Flattening from Satellite Data [f = (a-b)/a)=1/298.3]
Note: Line of sight requirement.

Brief History of Navigation

• Landmark based navigation: Stones-Trees-Monuments (local use)
• Celestial Navigation Ok for latitude, poor for longitude until accurate clock invented ~1760
• 13th Century: Magnetic Compass
• 1907: Gyrocompass
• 1912: Radio Direction Finding
• 1930’s: Radar and Inertial Nav
Receiver only 6cm Integrates eLoran, Chayka, GNSS
• 1940-60’s: #Loran-A/B (Very Low frequency Radio-based) How Well Does these Works?
• 1950-70’s: Loran-C/Chayka (High frequency Radio-based)
• 1960’s: Omega/Alpha*(Radio-based) &Transit
• 1980’s: Development of GPS
• 1993/95: GPS - IOC/FOC
• 1993/95: GLONASS-IOC/FOC
• 1994: International GPS Service IGS begins (now GNSS)
• 2006:GNSS conceptualization**
• 2000’s: eLoran (Enhanced Loran-20m)/eChayka
• 2010: GLONASS resumes
• 2010’s: conceptualization of integrated receivers with GNSS + eLoran + eChayka (Satellite+Terrestrial)
• 2013-16: IRNSS
(https://www.reelektronika.nl/technology/integrated-elorangps-receivers/) solar powered eDLoran.
• 2019/20: Beidou
#LORAN: LOng-RAnge Navigation *Alpha was used to determine positions of aircraft, ships, & submarines **beginning of combined receivers
Global Loran Coverage
Xiaomi Mi8
Source: https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/eLoran-Definition-Document-0-1-Released.pdf
Source: https://www.geospatialworld.net/blogs/the-redmi-note-9-pro-with-navic-support-is-
here/#:~:text=The%20Redmi%20Note%209%20Pro%20with%20a%20Qualcomm%C2%AE%20Snapdragon,175)%20on%20the%20Mi%20Store.&text=The%20Navigation%20and%20positioning%20features,%2F%20Galileo%2F%20GLONASS%20%2F%20Beidou.
Early Space-Based Radio Navigation System

• Launch of Sputnik – Tracking? -------------Doppler Shift. Altitude: 985km; revolution period: 98 min
• Frank McClure, of the Applied Physics Laboratory, made a suggestion: would it be possible to invert
this problem? – given rise to TRANSIT in late 1950’s (US- 6 sat; Altitude: 1100km; revolution
period: 108 min) / TSYKLON/Cyclone (USSR-10 sat; 6- PARUS: Military; 4- TSIKADA /
Cicada[1979]-commercial /civilian; Altitude: 1000km)
• The Navy Navigational Satellite System or TRANSIT, used observed measurements in Doppler shift
to calculate distance and position to satellites (till 31-12-96).
• A fix requires 40 minutes for a static user-2D.
• Development of basic methods for satellite observations (Sputnik onwards), and for the
computation & analysis of satellite orbits provided publication of the first Earth models such as:
• the Standard Earth models of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO SE I to SAO SE III), and
• the Goddard Earth Models (GEM) of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
• TRANSIT Doppler positioning helped in improving Earth geoid models (e.g. GEM 10, GRIM).
• Radio Navigation System assisted in crustal deformation studies globally.
• determination of connections between the most important geodetic datums (to ±50 m) by 1970s.
SATELLITE NAVIGATION
• A satellite navigation system is a system that uses satellites to
provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. Example:
• GLOBAL
• NAVSTAR GPS
• GLONASS
• BEIDOU
Transition: As a direct result of the tragedy killing all 269
• GALILEO aboard Korean Air Lines Flight 007 which strayed into
Russian airspace accidentally & shot down by Soviet air-
to-air missiles on September 1, 1983, near Sakhalin
• REGIONAL Island, Russia, President Ronald Reagan announced on
September 16, 1983 that the GPS system that had
• IRNSS previously been intended for U.S. military use only
• QZSS would now be made available for everyone to use.
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System

• In 1973 the U.S. DOD decided to establish, develop, test, acquire, and deploy a
spaceborne Global Positioning System (GPS), resulting in the NAVSTARGPS
(NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). Wooden
(1985) defined: “It is an all-weather, space based navigation system
development by the U.S. DOD to satisfy the requirements for the military forces
to accurately determine their position, velocity, and time in a common
reference system, anywhere on or near the Earth on a continuous basis”.
Space- Vs. Ground-based Nav. Systems

High frequency (short wave-length) radio signals, necessary for optimal
atmospheric penetration, require line-of-sight transmission paths. Ground-based
systems are limited to objects above ground.
GPS/GLONASS/Galileo General Characteristics

• Developed by the US DOD/USSR/EU
• Provides
• Accurate
Parameter Navigation
NAVSTAR GPS GLONASS Galileo Beidou1/2
Position
• 1010-20m
- 20 m 10-20m ~10-20m ~10-20m
• Velocity ~ 10cm/s
Velocity 10cm/s 10cm/s currently)
20cm/s 20/40cm/s
• Time ~ 0.1 µs (15ns
• 6/3 0.1
Time orbits
µs (15ns) 20ns 20ns 20/50ns
1 •
st Worldwide
Satellite PRN 4 Coverage
Kosmos1413 *GIOVE-A Beidou-1A
• 24 hour access 12Oct.1982 28Dec,2005 30Oct.2000
22Feb.1978
Ellipsoid WGS84 PZ - 90.11 GTRF CGCS2000* *
• Common Coordinate System
# ##
• WGS84 :: Parametry Zemli 1990(PZ-90.11)

• Designed to replace existing navigation systems
• Accessible by Civil and Military
#Parametry Zemli 1990(PZ-90.11) ## Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame

*Galileo-In Orbit Validation Element (GIOVE) * * China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000
Space Segment
(Initial Operational Capability(IOC)-1993)
(Full Operational Capability(FOC)-1995)
Block I Block II/IIA
Two Launches: Dec. 23, 2018 and 22 August, 2019
Total IIIA Series: 10 planned; IIIF Series: 11th onwards
 Entirely new design
 new ground control system (known as OCX $500 million/ $6
billion : FOC by 2021 by Raytheon). OCX passed
cybersecurity tests.
 first GPS sent aboard on a SpaceX rocket
 M-Code: more powerful GPS 3 signal for military users &
First Launch: 22 Feb 78(78-85)# First Launch: 14 Apr 89(89-97) more secure against jamming or spoofing.
On-Orbit: None, Total=11 Total II Series: 27 (1+14+12+8)  S-Band serial telemetry link
Block IIIA/IIIF
GPS III will deliver three times

better accuracy and provide up to
eight times improved anti-jamming
Block IIR / IIR-M(L2C & code M on both capabilities.
L1& L2)
Block IIF
Source: www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/
First Launch:22 Jul 1997/25Sep2005 First Launch: 2009 First Launch: 2018 www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/gps_3.htm
Total=12/8 Acquiring up to 19 SV’s Acquiring up to 32 SV’s
(R: Replenishment; M: Modernized)
#Inclination=63°:- optimized for North American region. The last Block I/II satellite was deactivated end of
March 1996/March 2007.
NAVSTAR GPS Satellite Constellation
L1C is the fourth civilian GPS signal,

designed to enable interoperability
between GPS and international
satellite navigation systems.
The United States and Europe

originally developed L1C as a common
civil signal for GPS and Galileo. Japan's
QZSS and China's BeiDou system are Source: https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/
also adopting L1C-like signals.

GLONASS satellites
Source: https://www.glonass-iac.ru/en/guide/
NAVSTAR GPS Satellite Constellation
GLONASS Status • The GLONASS system time is based

on the Central Synchronizer within
the ground based control complex. It
is realized by hydrogen masers with a
daily stability of better than 5⋅10-14.
• On board time scales of GLONASS
satellites are based on Cesium clocks.
• The daily stability of the satellite
frequencies is better than 5⋅10-13.
GPS System Components

• Development costs estimate ~$12 billion
• Annual operating cost ~$750 million
• 3 Segments:
• Space: Satellites
• User: Receivers
• Control: Monitor & Control stations
• Prime Space Segment contractor: Rockwell International/ Boeing than Lockheed
Martin, Boeing and again Lockheed Martin…
• Coordinate Reference: WGS-84
• Operated by US Air Force Space Command (AFSC)
• Mission control center operations at Schriever (formerly Falcon) AFB,
Colorado Springs
GPS System Components

Space Segment
• 24 Satellites • 12 Hourly orbits
• 4 satellites in 6 Orbital Planes inclined at – In view for 4-5 hours
55 Degrees • Designed to last 7.5 years
• 20200 Km above the Earth • Different Classifications
• Every satellite is visible from minimum 2 – Block 1, 2, 2A, 2R, 2R-M, 2F, 3 & 3F
ground stations
55̊
Equator
Managed by the US National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

Executive Committee
Control Segment Monitor and Control Stations
Colorado
Springs
Ascension Kwajalein
Hawaii
Islands
Diego
Garcia
Master Control Station

Monitor Station
Ground Antenna
Control Segment: Latest

The GPS network has 16 monitoring sites/stations that provide global coverage. Six (6) are owned
by the Air Force and 10 by the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency. They require sophisticated
receivers to track GPS satellites as they pass overhead. These collect signals, measurements, and
atmospheric data, and feed observations to the master control station.
Source: https://spacenews.com/as-gps-3-launch-nears-air-force-keeps-watchful-eye-on-ground-controls/ [Screen-Shot-2018-09-09-at-5.09.56-PM-380x228]

Control Segment: Role

 Master Control Station
 Responsible for collecting tracking data from the monitoring stations and
calculating satellite orbits and clock parameters
 5 Monitoring Stations
 Responsible for measuring pseudorange data. This orbital tracking
network is used to determine the broadcast ephemeris and satellite clock
modeling
 Ground Control Stations with Antenna (S-band, uplink), Responsible for
upload of information to SV’s
 Routine maintenance
GLONASS signals
• The GLONASS satellite signal identifies the satellite and provides:
 position, velocity and acceleration vectors at a reference epoch to compute
satellite locations
 synchronization bits, data age and satellite health
 offset of GLONASS time from UTC (SU) (formerly Soviet Union and now Russia)
 almanacs of all other GLONASS satellites
Unlike GPS, all GLONASS satellites transmit the same code at different
frequencies. They derive signal timing and frequencies from one of three on-board
cesium atomic clocks operating at 5 MHz:
For example, L1 = 1602 MHz + (n x 0.5625) MHz where n = the frequency
channel number (n = 0, 1, 2 and so on)
L2= 1246 MHz + n × 0.4375 MHz
• The frequency ratio f2 /f1 is constant for all GLONASS satellites and amounts to
Characteristics of GPS & GLONASS
The main difference

between GPS and
GLONASS is that in
GLONASS each satellite
has its own frequencies
but the same code
whereas in GPS all
satellites use the same
frequencies but have
different codes.
User Segment- Who uses it

 The most visible segment - Everyone!
 GPS receivers are found in many locations and applications
 Merchant, Navy, Coast Guard vessels
 Surveyors
 Has completely revolutionized surveying
 Hikers, Mountain Climbers, Backpackers
 Cars now being equipped
 Communications & Imaging Satellites
 Space-to-Space Navigation
 Any system requiring accurate timing
 Commercial Truckers, Commercial Airliners, Civil Pilots
The GNSS constellation system’s potential civil applications are many and mirror those of GPS.
Why GPS?
• Weather Independent • Economical advantages

(Rain/fog/ snow have no effect • Common Coordinate System
on signals)
• Wide Range of Applications
• Does not require line of sight
• Competitively Priced
• Gives high Geodetic Accuracy • Quicker and requires less
manpower
• Can be operated day and night
How It Works (In 5 Easy Steps)

• GPS is a ranging system (triangulation)
• The “reference stations” are satellites moving at 4 km/s
1. A GPS receiver (“the user”) detects 1-way ranging signals from several
satellites
• Each transmission is time-tagged
• Each transmission/ephemeris contains the satellite’s position
2. The time-of-arrival is compared to time-of-transmission
3. The delta-T is multiplied by the speed of light to obtain the range:
P= [(Transmission time – Reception time) × Speed of light]
4. Each range puts the user on a sphere about the satellite
5. Intersecting several of these yields a user position
Outline Principle : Range

Range = Time Taken x Speed of Light
SA: Selective
availability
Xll
Acc.: 10-100m
Vl
A receiver in autonomous mode provides navigation and positioning accuracy of

about 10 (SA off) to 100 m (SA on) due to the effects of GPS errors!!?
Multi-Satellite Ranging
1 range puts Intersecting with A 3rd range

user on the a 2nd range constrains user to 1
spherical face restricts user to of the 2 points.
of the cone. the circular arcs.
Source: Trimble (free e-book): GPS The

Pictures courtesy http://giswww.pok.ibm.com/gps First GNSS
Outline Principle : Position

 The satellites are like “Orbiting Control Stations”
 Ranges (distances) are measured to each satellite using time dependent
codes
 Typically GPS receivers use inexpensive clocks. They are much less accurate
than the clocks on board the satellites
 A radio wave travels at the speed of light
 (Distance = Velocity x Time)
 Consider an error in the receiver clock
 1/10 second error = 30,000 Km error
 1/1,000,000 second error = 300 m error
 1/1,000,000,000 second error = 0.3 m error
Timing
• Accuracy of position is only as good as your clock
• To know where you are, you must know when you receive.
• Receiver clock must match SV clock to compute delta-T
• SVs carry atomic oscillators (2 rubidium, 2 cesium each)

• Not practical for hand-held receiver
• Accumulated drift of receiver clock is called clock bias
• The erroneously measured range is called a pseudorange
• To eliminate the bias, a 4th SV is tracked

• 4 equations, 4 unknowns
• Solution now generates X,Y,Z and b
• If Doppler also tracked, Velocity can be computed
• Each Galileo satellite has two master passive hydrogen maser atomic clocks and
two secondary rubidium atomic clocks which are independent of one other
Interactive Session
• Which is the counterpart system of LORAN: • Which is the counterpart system of Alpha:
• Chyka • Chyka
• GLONASS • Omega
• GPS • GPS
• Alpha • GLONASS
• Galileo is from:
• Beidou is from:
• Russia
• Russia
• European Union
• European Union
• USA
• USA
• Japan
• China
• GPS is based on:

• 1-way ranging • Accumulated drift of receiver clock is called:
• 2-way ranging • clock bias
• 3-way ranging • Pseudorange
• None • triangulation
• Trilateration
• GLONASS use following signals:
• FDMA • Positioning requires minimum…… number of satellites:
• CDMA • 3
• Both of the above • 4
• TDMA • 5
• 6
Position Equations
P1  ( X  X 1 ) 2  (Y  Y1 ) 2  ( Z  Z 1 ) 2  b
P2  ( X  X 2 ) 2  (Y  Y2 ) 2  ( Z  Z 2 ) 2  b
P3  ( X  X 3 ) 2  (Y  Y3 ) 2  ( Z  Z 3 ) 2  b
P4  ( X  X 4 ) 2  (Y  Y4 ) 2  ( Z  Z 4 ) 2  b
Where: Pi = Measured PseudoRange (Biased ranges) to the ith SV
Xi , Yi , Zi = Position of the ith SV, Cartesian Coordinates
X , Y , Z = User position, Cartesian Coordinates, to be solved-for
b = User clock bias (in distance units), to be solved-for
• The above nonlinear equations are solved iteratively using an initial estimate of the user
position, XYZ, and b- same for all satellites.
• To solve the user position equations, one must know where the SV is:
• The navigation and time code provides this
• 50 Hz signal modulated on L1 and L2
GPS Time
• GPS time is referenced to 6 January 1980, 00:00:00
• Jan 6 = First Sunday in 1980
• GPS satellite clocks are essentially synched to International Atomic Time (TAI)
(and therefore to UTC/zulu time since Jan. 1, 1972 for global civil time)
• TAI, maintained at Lab., France, is the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used for
most civil timekeeping
• GPS time = TAI + 13s
• Since 13 leapseconds existed on 1/6/1980
• GPS time drifts ahead of UTC as the latter is “held” (leapseconds) to

accommodate earth’s slowing
• Delta between GPS SV time & UTC is included in nav/timing message
• SV clocks good to about 1 part in 1013
• Effectively, GPS time starts with zero at the beginning of each week.
GPS Signal Structure

 Each GPS satellite transmits a number of signals
 The signal comprises two UHF carrier waves (L1-19cm and L2-23cm) and two
codes as low power radio signals (C/A on L1 and P or Y on both L1 and L2) as
well as a satellite orbit message. [L5
 Bandwidth allocated for L1-24 MHz, L2-22 MHz, & L5-28 MHz
Fundamental
Frequency
10.23 MHz ÷ 10
L1 C/A Code P (Y)-Code

x 154 1575.42 MHz 1.023 MHz 10.23 MHz
GLONASS fundamental x 120 L2 P (Y)-Code
frequency is 5.0MHz 1227.60 MHz 10.23 MHz
50 BPS Satellite Message (Almanac & Ephemeris)
L3(1381.05MHz); L4 (1379.913MHz): used only for a atomic flash detection; Nudet (Nuclear Detection) System
(NDS). L5: 1176.45 MHz (25.5 cm, In-door apps., anti-jamming). L2C: 1227.60MHz (in pre-operational testing
and available on 24 satellites since May, 2017). L1C:1575.42MHz (III series onwards)
Modernized GPS – New Signals

• Second civil signal (“L2C”)
•Began with GPS Block IIR-M in Sep 2005
•Designed to meet commercial needs
•Higher accuracy through ionospheric correction
• Third civil signal (“L5”)
•Begins with GPS Block IIF
•First launch: ~2008 (GPS IIR-M Demo); ~2009 (GPS IIF)
•Designed to meet requirements for transportation safety (safety-of-life)
•in-phase code (I5-code) & quadrature-phase code (Q5-code). Both codes are 10,230
bits long and transmitted at 10.23 MHz (1ms repetition).
• Fourth civil signal (“L1C”)
•Begins with GPS Block III; First launch: 23rd Dec. 2018; 32 satellites
•Designed with international partners to enable GNSS interoperability
Precise (P) Code

• P-code rate is the fundamental frequency (provides the basis for all others), e.g.:
• P-Code (10.23 MHz) X 115 = 1.176 MHz (Carrier L5).
• Generally encrypted into the Y-code (A.S.)

• Requires special chip to decode
• Modulates both L1 & L2
• Also modulated by Nav/Time data message
• Chipping rate=10.23/5.11 MHz (λ=29.30m) i.e. 10 times faster than C/A code
ensuring improved time measurement. Therefore, the accuracy is approx. 10
times higher than for the C/A-code.
• Sequence Length = 2.35*1014 /5.11*106 bits (Period = 266 days).
• The total code is partitioned into 37 one–week segments. One segment is
assigned to each satellite
Coarse Acquisition (C/A) Code

• Also known as Clear-Access code
• 1023/511-bit Gold Code (GPS/GLONASS); L1C is 10230-bit Weil Code
• Originally intended as simply an acquisition code for P-code receivers
• Modulates the L1 only
• Chipping rate = 1.023 / 0.511 MHz (λ=290 meter)
• Sequence Length = 1023 / 511 bits, (Period = 1 millisec). The time interval
between two subsequent bits (≈ 10−6 s) approx. corresponds to 300m.
• Provides the data for Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
• The usual position generated for most civilian receivers
• Modulated by the Navigation/Timing Message code
• M-Code frequency is 5.115MHz (ion both L1 & L2).
Navigation Message
n In order to solve the user position equations, one must know where the SV is:
n The navigation and time code provides this
u 50 Hz signal modulated on L1 and L2
n The SV’s own position information is transmitted in a 1500-bit data frame
u Pseudo-Keplerian orbital elements
F Determined by control center via ground tracking
u Receiver implements orbit-to-position algorithm
n Also includes clock data and satellite status
n And ionospheric / tropospheric corrections
n International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has reserved 1559-1610MHz band for satellite
based navigation through World Radio Communication (WRC) conferences, held every three
year.
n GPS bands (US Federal Communication Commission): (1215-1240MHz, 1559-1610 MHz, L5-
1164-1188MHz)
Navigation Message
Structure of Navigation data
DB I: Appears in the I subframe & contains the clock coefficient/bias.

DB II: Appears in the II and III subframes and contains all necessary parameters
for the computations of the satellite co-ordinates (Broadcast Ephemeris).
DB III: Appears in the IV and V subframes and contains the almanac data with
clock, ephemeris parameters, special information for all available GPS satellites.
The 5 frames take 6 sec. each to broadcast; so 30 sec. to get complete message
The Almanac
• In addition to its own nav data, each
SV also broadcasts info about ALL the
other SV’s
• In a reduced-accuracy format
• Known as the Almanac
• Permits receiver to predict, from a
cold start, “where to look” for SV’s
when powered up
• GPS orbits are so predictable, an
almanac may be valid for months
• Almanac data is large
• 12.5 minutes to transfer in entirety
Source:www.glonass-iac.ru/en/GLONASS/ephemeris.php
Range Determination from Code Observations

 Pseudoranges (Code) Received Code
 PRN uniquely identifies each satellite.
from Satellite
 PRN provides timing coordination for GPS.
Generated
 PRN enable amplification of signals.
Code from
 Each satellite sends a unique signal which repeats itself approx. 1
msec. Receiver
 Receiver compares self generated signal with received signal dT
(correlation process) for synchronization of Receiver clock with D = V (dT)
the satellite clock.
 From the time difference (dT) a range observation can be
determined.
Receiver/Signal Code Comparison

PRN: sequence of on & off
pulses (period: 1 millisec.)
Range Determination from Phase Observations
 Phase Observations
Received Satellite
 Wavelength of the signal is 19 cm on L1 and 24 cm
on L2 Phase
 Receiver compares self-generated phase with
received phase Generated
 Number of wavelengths is not known at the time Phase from
the receiver is switched on (carrier phase ambiguity) Receiver
 As long as you track the satellite, the change in
dT
distance can be observed (the carrier phase
ambiguity remains constant)
D = c .dT + N λ
If longer PRN code is used, receiver becomes more resistive to Jamming signal. But, signal
processing is more complex
Satellite Geometry
Satellite geometry can affect the quality of signals and accuracy of receiver
trilateration.
Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP) reflects each satellite’s position relative to
the other satellites being accessed by a receiver.
PDOP can be used as an indicator of the quality of a receiver’s triangulated
position.
It’s usually up to the GPS receiver to pick satellites which provide the best
position trilateration.
Dilution of Precision (DOP)

Satellite geometry can affect the quality of signals and accuracy of receiver trilateration.
• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the uncertainty in a position fix.
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites being tracked at the time
of measurement
– GDOP (Geometrical) Good GDOP Poor DOP
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon QUALITY DOP
Very Good 1-3
– VDOP (Vertical) Good 4-5
• Includes Height Fair 6
Suspect >6
Satellite Geometries
Ideal Satellite Geometry Good Satellite Geometry
Skewed Satellite Geometry Poor Satellite Geometry

GNSS
Systems
Advantages of GNSS
• The use of GLONASS in addition to GPS provides very significant
advantages:
 increased availability of satellites & signals.
 markedly increased spatial distribution of visible satellites
 reduced HDOP and VDOP (DOP) factors
 Better atmospheric correction
 decreased occupation times means faster RTK results
 A larger satellite constellation also improves real-time carrier phase differential
positioning performance.
 accurate, robust & reliable services even in bad conditions
 Less expensive high-end services
Source: https://www.novatel.com/assets/Documents/Papers/GLONASSOverview.pdf
STEPS IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Aerial Photo
/ satellite image Input
Ground Control survey Photo Processing /

scanning (N/A to sat.)
Aero/Sat. Triangulation/
Control extension and Block
Adjustment
Stereo data capture

DEM Generation Photogrammetric for Planimetric
Contour Generation features
Digital Topographic
maps
Ortho Image
/ Mosaic Generation
Hard copy & softcopy of digital Maps GIS and Engineering

and Ortho Photo/image Maps Applications
Assessment of the MERIT DEM and EarthEnv DEM90 DEMs using GCPs
Table 1: Vertical accuracy measures computed for the experimental sites
Experimetnal ME MAE RMSE St. Dev. LE90
Sites (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Jaipur Site 1.37 4.03 3.27 2.97 4.91
Kendrapara -3.33 3.33 4.00 2.21 3.65
site
Dehradun Site 3.17 4.79 7.82 7.15 11.79
Chandigarh 0.27 4.79 5.59 5.58 9.20
Site
Kalka Site -0.19 12.82 16.61 16.58 27.36
Delhi Site -11.19 10.07 13.14 6.90 11.38
FUSED DEMs
Elevation extraction at
GCP locations
Datum Conversion
Figure 1: Location map of the MERIT experimental sites with DEMs
GCPs
Table 2: Comparison of vertical accuracy for the MERIT DEM & EarthEnv DEM90
Experimetnal Sites ME (m) MAE (m) RMSE (m) Statistics generation
DEMs-90m MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv
Jaipur Site 1.37 0.70 4.03 2.28 3.27 3.05
Kendrapara site -3.33 -3.64 3.33 3.64 4.00 4.22 Quality Assessment
Dehradun Site 3.17 0.57 4.79 5.42 7.82 6.55
Mapping of Republic of Maldives
https://www.gim-international.com/files/0812346fc5116deee99fe6f235d260dc.doc
Global Geodesy Applied and Plane Geodesy

− general shape of Earth’s figure and gravity field, − detailed plane surveying (land register, urban and rural
− dimensions of a mean Earth ellipsoid, surveying, geographic information systems (GIS), town
− establishment of a global terrestrial reference frame, planning, boundary demarcation etc.),
− detailed geoid as a reference surface on land and at sea, − installation of special networks & control for engg. tasks,
− connection between different existing geodetic datums, − terrestrial control points in photogrammetry & remote
and sensing,
− connection of national datums with a global geodetic − position and orientation of airborne sensors like
datum. photogrammetric cameras,
Geodetic Control − control and position information at different accuracy levels
− establishment of geodetic control for national networks, in forestry, agriculture, archaeology, expedition cartography
− installation of three-dimensional homogeneous networks, Navigation and Marine Geodesy
− analysis and improvement of existing terrestrial − precise navigation of land-, sea-, and air-vehicles,
networks, − precise positioning for marine mapping, exploration,
− establishment of geodetic connections between islands hydrography, oceanography, marine geology, geophysics,
or with the mainland, − connection and control of tide gauges (unification of height
− densification of existing networks up to short interstation systems).
distances. Related Fields
Geodynamics − position and velocity determination for geophysical
− control points for crustal motion, observations (gravimetric, magnetic, seismic surveys), also
− permanent arrays for 3D-control in active areas, at sea and in the air,
− polar motion, Earth rotation, and − determination of ice motion (glaciology/ Antarctica/ oceans)
− solid Earth tides. − determination of satellite orbits, and
− tomography of the atmosphere (ionosphere, troposphere).
source: Satellite Geodesy by Günter Seeber, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG,10785 Berlin 2003
Services
NAVSTAR GPS:
• Standard Positioning Service(SPS)
• Precise Positioning Service(PPS)
GLONASS:
• Standard Precision Service(SPS)
• High Precision Service(HPS)
Galileo:
• The Open source (OS) ECEF
• The Safety of life (SoL)
• The Commercial Service (CS) by Galileo Operating Concessionaire (GOC)
• The Public Regulated services(PRS): European Police/Antifraud offices.
• The Search & Rescue(SAR-L6) Service:+ to COSPAS-SARSAT system
Receivers
Single Frequency Dual Frequency
• Baseline Accuracy 1cm/5mm + 2/1ppm (rms) • The “high end” of the GPS Market
• Uses Post process L1 carrier phase • Baseline Accuracy ranging from 5/3/3.5mm +
1/0.4ppm (rms)
• Used for all Surveying tasks with baselines up
to 15Km • Used in all GPS Surveying tasks :-
• Network Densification, Detail Surveys • Geodetic Control Networks, Tectonic Plate
• Real Time Monitoring, Photogrammetric Control,
• Smaller Occupation time Network Densification, Detail Surveys, etc.
• Less expensive alternative to Dual frequency • Real Time
• Most unsophisticated receivers track only L1 • Smaller Occupation time
and use a simplified correction model • New applications are found on a daily basis
3 Classes of GPS receivers

• Geodetic class
• capable of sub-centimeter accuracy
• high-precision mapping, surveying, & geodetic applications
• Relatively bulky, expensive (Choke ring antenna for multipath)
• Mapping grade
• capable of <3 meters accuracy
• portable, less expensive
• accurate mapping for integration with GIS
• Navigation
• capable of 10 meters accuracy
• light weight, cheap
• basic navigation, limited data storage
GPS Surveying Techniques

 Static
 For long baselines (>20Km), where the highest possible accuracy is required
 This is the traditional technique for providing Geodetic Networks and the only
solution for large areas
 Rapid Static / Fast Static
 For baselines up to 20Km
 Short Occupation times/high production
 Stop and Go
 Detail Surveys. Any application where many points close together have to be
surveyed
 Fast, economical & Ideal for open areas
 Kinematic
 Used to track the trajectory of a moving object (continuous measurements)
 Can be used to profile roadways, stockpiles, etc.
 Differential GPS/GNSS
Sources of error
1. [Selective availability]
2. Clock errors
3. Ephemeris errors
4. Atmospheric delays
5. Multipath effects
6. Receiver errors
Error Budget
 User Range Errors (URE) consists of System Errors (Ephemeris Data, & Satellite
Clocks) and atmospheric Errors (Ionospheric/Tropospheric: 90% Dry delay due
to dry gases; 10% Wet delay due to WV & condensed clouds).
 User Equipment Errors (UEE) consist of Receiver Noise and Multipath error.
 PDOP of 2 means that in the worst case, a 1m URE will result in 2m positional
error.
Typical Error in Meters (per satellite)
Standard GPS Differential GPS
Satellite Clocks 1.5 0
Orbit Errors 2.5 0
Ionosphere 5 0.4
Troposphere 0.5 0.2
Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3
Multipath 0.6 0.6
SA 30 0
Typical Position Accuracy

Horizontal 50 1.3
Vertical 78 2
3-D 93 2.8
Satellite Mask Angle

• Atmospheric Refraction is greater for satellites at angles that are low to the
receiver because the signal must pass through more atmosphere.
• There is a trade off between mask angle and atmospheric refraction. Setting
high angles will decrease atmospheric refraction, but it will also decrease the
possibility of tracking the necessary four satellites.
Elevation and Mask Angle

Selective Availability (SA)

• To deny high-accuracy real-time positioning to potential enemies, DoD reserves
the right to deliberately degrade GPS performance
• Only on the C/A code
• In theory a point position can be accurate to 10 - 30m based on the C/A Code
• By far the largest GPS error source
100m
30m
• Accomplished by:
• “Dithering” the clock data
• Results in erroneous pseudoranges
• Truncating the nav message data
P
• Erroneous SV positions used to compute user pos.
• Degrades SPS solution by a factor of 4 or more
• Long-term averaging is only effective SA compensator
• Positional accuracy 50m(1sigma), 100m (95%) +/- 100m (95%)
ON 1 MAY 2000: SA WAS DISABLED BY DIRECTIVE P = True Position

Atmospheric Delay
GPS signals are delayed as they
pass through the atmosphere (a.
layer of charged ions and free
electrons known as ionosphere and
b. the troposphere)
< 10 km > 10 km
Tropospheric Refraction
• Troposphere is the lowest layer of atmosphere varying from (ground to) 7 to
14kms.
• Pseudo range errors varies from 2m if the satellite is at zenith to 30m for a
5° elevation satellite.
• The delay depends on temperature, pressure, humidity, and elevation of

satellite.
• Hydrostatic delay occurs due to presence of dry gases: about 2 meters in the
zenith direction to 10 meters for lower elevations.
• Wet delay occurs due to water vapor and condensed clouds: only some tens
of centimetres.
Atmospheric Refraction
Ionsospheric Refraction Depends on:
•Sun’s activity (11 years sunspot cycle),
•Ionospheric thickness & proportions/concentration of ionized particles,
•Season,
•Actual path (i.e. relative position of satellite & receiver) of the wave i.e. signal
•Pseudo range errors vary from 0 to 15m at zenithal incidence to as much as 45m
for low incidence signals.
•delay is proportional to the integral no. of free electrons along the transmission
path and inversely proportional to the square of the transmission frequency.
Note: Two measurements at two different frequencies(P-code) can remove

ionospheric error.
Multipath Error
SV1
Choke Ring
antenna
SV2
Caused by local reflections of the GPS/GNSS signals that mix with the desired signals
Signal Obstruction
SV1 SV2
SV3
 When something blocks the GPS signal.
 Areas of Great Elevation Differences
 Canyons
 Mountain Obstruction
 Urban Environments
 Indoors
Sources of Signal Interference

Human Error

 Static
 Stop and Go
surveyed
 Kinematic
GPS Processing Techniques

Standalone: providing 10-20 m accuracy to meter level of accuracies depending
on DOP.
Principle of Differential- GPS/GNSS

• the Reference Station may compute the errors Δx,
Δy and Δz given by
Δx = x – x’, Δy = y – y’, Δz = z – z’
• where x, y, z are the correct known positions of the
Reference Station and x’, y’, z’ are the computed
positions of the Reference Stations using 4 satellites.
• This can be transmitted to the User Receiver in real

time.
• The user receiver computes his position using the

Pseudoranges obtained from the same 4 GPS
satellites and apply the corrections Δx, Δy and Δz.
• This also provides improved position estimate

Quiz Time
• DGNSS requires minimum…. GNSS receivers: • Beidou use following reference coordinate system:
• 2 • CGCS
• 3 • GTRF
• 4 • ITRF
• 5 • WGS 84
• DGNSS cannot remove following errors: • Beidou uses following orbits:

• Receiver Noise • GSO
• Multipath • IGSO
• Both of the above • MEO
• Clock errors • All of the above
• GPS is based on following reference coordinate system:

• Ionsospheric Refraction Depends on:
• ECEF
• Sun’s activity
• GRS-80
• Ionospheric thickness & proportions of ionized particles
• Everest ellipsoid
• Season
• None
• All of the above
• GLONASS use following ellipsoid:
• Precise Point Positioning requires …… receiver:
• PZ-90
• 1
• WGS-84
• 3
• GRS-80
• 4
• WGS72
• 5
How to improve the positional

accuracy ?
Use
Differential GPS/GNSS
Differential GPS Survey: What it serves?
High Accuracy
(Receiver position, satellite position, frequency-ionospheric
corrections, time-ambiguity of carrier phase measurements)
Differential Positioning
• It is possible to determine the position of Rover ‘B’ in relation to
Reference ‘A’ provided
– The coordinates of the Reference
Station (A) are known
– Satellites are tracked simultaneously

• Differential Positioning
– eliminates errors in the sat. and
receiver clocks
– minimizes atmospheric delays
– Accuracy 0.5 cm - 5 m A B
DGPS Method
Method to remove errors from GPS measurements
Uses a GPS receiver at a fixed, surveyed location i.e. base station, to measure
error in pseudo range
Base station receives the same GPS signals as the roving receiver and instead
of using timing signal to calculate its position, it uses its known position to
calculate timing.
Pseudorange error for each satellite is subtracted from rover before calculating
position during RTK mode or post processing
Signal time at reference location is compared to time at remote location. Time

difference represents error in satellite’s signal; clock bias
Differential GPS Correction
Post - Processed
Differential GPS Correction Signal-RTK

n In a scientific sense Real Time can be defined as any action undertaken that
results in an instantaneous response.
n All processing took place in Real Time.
• Uses standardized output: RTCM-104
• Binary code, not directly readable
• Receivers often provide RTCM-104 on
a RS-232 serial port
Real - Time
Example: Field Work- Static
R1 R2
R8
R3
R7
Base
R4
R6
R5
Case1: Survey with Two GNSS Geodetic Receivers
Example: Field Work- Static

R1 R2
R2/8
R1/3
R1/7
Base
R2/4
R2/6
R1/5
Case2: Survey with Three or more GNSS Geodetic Receivers

The Technique and Processing

• In the post processing, some of the errors between the base
station and rover data can be recognized, & corrected.
• Requires post-processing of field data.
(1) download the rover data
(2) download the base station data
(3) use software to make the corrections
• Remove or reduce all errors except multipath.

GPS Errors Diff. Corrected
Atmospheric partial
Clock and Ephemeris yes
Multipath no
Receiver noise no
Advantage of Differential GPS
X Improved accuracy has a profound effect on

the importance of GPS as a resource.
X It becomes more and more useful for
applications where cm accuracies are
required, like:
1. Urban mapping.
2. Alignment: Road, Railways, canal.
3. Cartography,etc.
Continuously Operating Reference System

Precise Point Positioning

• PPP methods are similar to DGNSS positioning methods, however it use permanent
reference stations to quantify systematic errors. It can also be in post-mission or real
time mode.
• Limitation: long observation requirements…
• The RTX (Real Time eXtended) positioning solution is the technology resulting from
statistical techniques providing users with cm-level or sub-meter real time position
accuracy anywhere on or near the earth’s surface using precise satellite corrections,
either through a satellite link [RTX(SV)]or the internet [RTX(Internet).
Examples of PPP Service Providers:
• The Automatic Precise Positioning
Service(APPS) of the Global Differential GPS
(GDGPS) System [http://apps.gdgps.net/].
• RTX Services by Trimble.
• Leica [(SmartLink (worldwide correction service)]
• OmniStar (Satellite Differential service)
• AUSPOS by Geoscience Australia
• CSRS-PPP by Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)
• magicGNSS, by GMV Aerospace and Defense
Company, Spain
Which equipment & antenna-receiver

combination bests suits my needs?
A GPS View of GIS Features

• Used for Geocoding of features and images.
• Point features are one or more positions averaged into a point
• Mapping Grade Receivers : Called “Points”
• Recreational Grade Receivers : Called “Waypoints”
Point
Line Area
– String of positions converted into a line / area

• Mapping Grade Receivers: Collected directly in the field as a line /
area feature
• Recreational Grade Receivers: Collected as a “TrackLog” then
converted back in the office
Integration with latest technologies

• GPS Juno ST GPS Handheld
Headset connector
Stylus holder
• Mobile
GPS
• Camera antenna
Reset
button
connector
• GIS s/w
• TS + GPS Power
button
SD card
slot
Lock
switch
Calendar Contacts
Today Messaging
screen
Directional
MIO Power/USB socket button
GNSS Data Processing Software

• Scientific • Commercial
 BERNESE from University of Berne,  SKIPRO from LEICA
Switzerland
 Leica Geo Office (LGO) from LEICA
 GAMIT from MIT, USA  GPSURVEY/TBC from TRIMBLE
 GIPSY from Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA
 GPSS from ASHTECH
 DIPOP from University of Brunswick,
 SPECTRUM SURVEY from SOKKIA
Canada
 GrafNav from Novatel
 GEONAP from University of Hannover,
Germany  Mostly use standard Atmosphere models:
Saastamoinen, Hopfield(Ski-pro)
 RTKlab, Tokyo University
 glab, Universitat Politechnica de Catalunya
(UPC) for ESA..
References
 http://www.glonass-ianc.rsa.ru/pls/htmldb/f?p=202:1:15000421459964108253
 http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/
 http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/precise/default.htm
 https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/eLoran-Definition-Document-0-1-Released.pdf
Interface Control Documents:
 http://www.navcen.uscg.gov
 http://www.Glonass-ianc.ras.ru
 http://www.Galileoju.com
Links:
 UNAVCO http://archive.unavco.ucar.edu/cgi-bin/dmg/pss
 CDDIS http://cddisa.gsfc.nasa.gov/cddis.html
 NGS/CORS http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS/ Contact Details of the Faculty:
 SOPAC http://sopac.ucsd.edu/
Email- ashutosh@iirs.gov.in
Tel- 0135-2524117
Faculty Profile : Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj
He is Scientist/Engineer-‘SF’ at Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing Department, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
Dehradun. He is a graduate in Civil Engg. from M.R.E.C. (present
MNIT), Jaipur; M.Tech. (Remote Sensing) from BIT, Ranchi & PhD
from Civil Engg. Dept., IIT, Roorkee. He joined ISRO in 2001 after
a brief career as faculty at Dept. of Civil Engg., BITS, Pilani.
• He has been engaged in industry, teaching and research in Surveying,
Photogrammetry, GNSS, Cartography, Remote Sensing and topographic
modelling for the past 20 years. He has published 50 research papers in
Journals and conferences. He has guided more than 50 graduate and post
graduate students on projects. He has widely contributed to various
projects of GOI on remote sensing and Mapping.
• He has received appreciation from the Ministry of Planning and National
Development (MPND), Republic of Maldives for rendering expert services
for GPS ground control survey in the National Mapping Project (Maldives).
ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9241-5427
Satellite Based Augmentation System
(SBAS)
and
GPS Aided Geo Augmentation
Navigation (GAGAN)
A multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS environment
Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj

Scientist/Engineer-’SF’, PRSD (GT&OP Group)
ashutosh@iirs.gov.in
Outline
Revision: GPS, GNSS, Segments, services, survey & processing

methods
What is an augmentation system?
Why augmentation system?
WAAS, EGNOS, GAGAN, and other SBAS
How important is positional accuracy GNSS?
CORS
Aviation Applications
A multi-constellation and multi-frequency GNSS environment

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System

• In 1973 the U.S. DOD decided to establish,
develop, test, acquire, and deploy a spaceborne
Global Positioning System (GPS), resulting in the
NAVSTARGPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And
Ranging Global Positioning System). Wooden
(1985) defined: “It is an all-weather, space based
navigation system development by the U.S. DOD
to satisfy the requirements for the military forces to
accurately determine their position, velocity, and
time in a common reference system, anywhere
on or near the Earth on a continuous basis”.
General Characteristics: GNSS Satellites

• Developed by the US/USSR/EU/China
• Provides:
Parameter NAVSTAR GPS GLONASS Galileo Beidou1/2
Position 10-20m 10-20m ~10-20m ~10-20m
Velocity 10cm/s 10cm/s 20cm/s 20/40cm/s
Time 0.1 µs (15ns) 20ns 20ns 20/50ns
1st Satellite PRN 4 Kosmos1413 *GIOVE-A Beidou-1A

22Feb.1978 12Oct.1982 28Dec,2005 30Oct.2000
Ellipsoid WGS84 PZ# - 90.11 GTRF CGCS2000
• 6/3/3/(5 GEO, 3 IGSO & 27 MEO)orbits

• Worldwide Coverage
• 24 hour access
• Common Coordinate System
• Designed to replace existing navigation systems
• Accessible by Civil and Military
#Parametry Zemli 1990(PZ-90.11)
*Galileo-In Orbit Validation Element (GIOVE)
Receivers
Single Frequency Dual Frequency
• Baseline Accuracy 1cm/5mm + 2/1ppm (rms) • The “high end” of the GPS Market
• Uses Post process L1 carrier phase • Baseline Accuracy ranging from 5/3/3.5mm +
1/0.4ppm (rms)
• Used for all Surveying tasks with baselines up
to 15Km • Used in all GPS Surveying tasks :-
• Network Densification, Detail Surveys • Geodetic Control Networks, Tectonic Plate
• Real Time Monitoring, Photogrammetric Control,
• Smaller Occupation time Network Densification, Detail Surveys, etc.
• Less expensive alternative to Dual frequency • Real Time
• Most unsophisticated receivers track only L1 • Smaller Occupation time
and use a simplified correction model • New applications are found on a daily basis
3 Classes of GPS receivers
• Geodetic class: capable of sub-centimeter accuracy, high-precision mapping
• Mapping grade: capable of <3 meters accuracy, portable, less expensive
• Navigation: capable of 10 meters accuracy, light weight, cheap
Error Budget
 User Range Errors (URE) consists of System Errors (Ephemeris Data, & Satellite
Clocks) and atmospheric Errors (Ionospheric/Tropospheric: 90% Dry delay due
to dry gases; 10% Wet delay due to WV & condensed clouds).
 User Equipment Errors (UEE) consist of Receiver Noise and Multipath error.
 PDOP of 2 means that in the worst case, a 1m URE will result in 2m positional
error.
Typical Error in Meters (per satellite)
Standard GPS Differential GPS
Satellite Clocks 1.5 0
Orbit Errors 2.5 0
Ionosphere 5 0.4
Troposphere 0.5 0.2
Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3
Multipath 0.6 0.6
SA 30 0
Typical Position Accuracy

Horizontal 50 1.3
Vertical 78 2
3-D 93 2.8

 Static
 Stop and Go
surveyed
 Kinematic
Principle of Differential- GPS/GNSS

• the Reference Station may compute the errors Δx, Δy and
Δz given by
Δx = x – x’, Δy = y – y’, Δz = z – z’
• where x, y, z are the correct known positions of the
Reference Station and x’, y’, z’ are the computed positions
of the Reference Stations using 4 satellites.
• This can be transmitted to the User Receiver in real time.
• The user receiver computes his position using the

Pseudoranges obtained from the same 4 GPS satellites
and apply the corrections Δx, Δy and Δz.
• This also provides improved position estimate

Open sources of DEMs

• Global GTOPO: http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/gtopo30/
SRTM: http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/data
• ETOPO-1/2 http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/
• GTOPO (~1 km) ASTER: http://www.gdem.aster.ersdac.or.jp/index.jsp
CartoDEM: www.bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in
• SRTM (C-band/X-band) TanDEM-X:
DEM (90 /https://tandemx-90m.dlr.de.
30 m)
• ASTER DEM (30 m) ALOS PALSAR: https://www.asf.alaska.edu/sar-data/palsar/terrain-
corrected-rtc/
• ALOS PALSAR (12.5m) MERIT: http://hydro.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~yamadai/MERIT_DEM
• ALOS PRISM (30m) Techniques
EarthEnv DEM90m: / tools available to obtain DEM
http://www.earthenv.org/DEM.html :
• TanDEM-X (90m) • Aerial & Satellite Photogrammetry
• National/Regional • SAR Interferometry (InSAR)
• Cartosat-1 DEM (30 m) • Laser Altimetry / Laser Scanner
• EU-DEM (30m) • Radargrammetry
• Fused /Assimilated DEMs • Topographic Maps
• MERIT • GPS/Conventional surveying methods
• EarthEnv 90m • Computed Tomography/Reflection Tomography
Stereovision/Stereoplotting Systems
Stereovision/Stereoplotting
Evaluating terrain type using geoid heights obtained from

different geoids using GeoidEval utility
west coast of Karnataka, India

& Part of Odisha State
Experimental Site EGM96 (360 deg.) EGM 2008 (2160 deg.) EGM84 (180 deg.)
Mean (m) St.Dev. (m) Mean(m) St.Dev. (m) Mean(m) St.Dev. (m)
Kendrapara -62.923 .0.275 -62.249 0.243 -61.691 0.234
Jaipur -50.243 0.467 -50.601 0.466 -50.765 0.391
Dehradun -44.021 1.223 -43.019 1.203 -37.765 12.338
Assessment of the MERIT DEM and EarthEnv DEM90 DEMs using GCPs
Table 1: Vertical accuracy measures computed for the experimental sites
Experimetnal ME MAE RMSE St. Dev. LE90
Sites (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Jaipur Site 1.37 4.03 3.27 2.97 4.91
Kendrapara -3.33 3.33 4.00 2.21 3.65
site
Dehradun Site 3.17 4.79 7.82 7.15 11.79
Chandigarh 0.27 4.79 5.59 5.58 9.20
Site
Kalka Site -0.19 12.82 16.61 16.58 27.36
Delhi Site -11.19 10.07 13.14 6.90 11.38
FUSED DEMs
Elevation extraction at
GCP locations(1) Ahmedabad,
(2) Alwar,
Figure 1: Location map of the MERIT experimental sites with DEMs Datum Conversion (3) Bhopal,
GCPs
(4) Chamoli,
Table 2: Comparison of vertical accuracy for the MERIT DEM & EarthEnv DEM90 (5) Dehradun,
Experimetnal Sites ME (m) MAE (m) RMSE (m) (6) Hyderabad,
Statistics generation
DEMs-90m MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv (7) Jaipur, and
Jaipur Site 1.37 0.70 4.03 2.28 3.27 3.05
Kendrapara site -3.33 -3.64 3.33 3.64 4.00 4.22
(8) Shimla
Quality Assessment
Dehradun Site 3.17 0.57 4.79 5.42 7.82 6.55
Mapping of Republic of Maldives
https://www.gim-international.com/files/0812346fc5116deee99fe6f235d260dc.doc
GENERATION OF RADARGRAMMETRY DEM USING RISAT-1
STEREO SAR PAIR AND VERTICAL ACCURACY
ASSESSMENT

Basic Understanding
• ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) develops the standards and
procedures to supports transition to the CNS (Communication, Navigation,
Surveillance) /ATM (Air Traffic Management) systems include Global
Navigation Satellite System(GNSS)
• SBAS: Provides Wide-area or regional augmentation through the use of
additional satellite-broadcast messages.
• Multiple ground stations, located at accurately-surveyed points. The ground
stations take measurements of one or more of the GNSS satellites, the
satellite signals, or other environmental factors which may impact the signal
received by the users.
• Information messages are created and sent to one or more geostationary
satellites for broadcast to the end users.
• SBAS is sometimes synonymous with WADGPS, wide-area DGPS
Provides high accuracy

The Role of the Geostationary Satellite

Geostationary satellite
Uplink Corrections
Repeat, Broadcast
Corrections

• WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System)
• GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation)
• EGNOS (European Geo-stationary Navigation Overlay Service )
• MSAS (Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System)
• QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System)
• SDCM (System of Differential Correction and Monitoring)
• SNAS (Satellite Navigation Augmentation System)
• SACCSA (Soluciόn de Aumentaciόn para Caribe, Centro y Sudamérica)
• NDGPS (National level Differential Global Positioning System)
• CORS (Continuous Operating Reference Stations)
• Global Differential GPS (GDGPS)
• International GNSS Service (IGS)
Integrity is the trust that can be placed in the correctness of information supplied by a navigation
system.
Long term (2020-2025) plan – Global SBAS

Dual Frequency / dual GNSS: WAAS-EGNOS-MSAS-SDCM-GAGAN with expanded
network of stations in South hemisphere.
Current + Future Planned + Expanded

Reference Networks
Why SBAS ? :- GNSS Aviation Integrity

• Using ICAO GNSS Implementation Strategy and ICAO Standards and
Recommended Practices
• GPS Aviation Use Approved for Over a Decade
• Aircraft Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS) – (e.g. RAIM: receiver autonomous integrity
monitoring).
• Space Based Augmentation System (SBAS) since 2003
• Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) augmenting GPS.
• As of August 15th, 2019 there are 3,994 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Localizer
Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) approach procedures serving 1,949 airports. 1179 of
these airports are Non-ILS airports.
• Development of GNSS Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS)
Continues
• Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
• GNSS is Cornerstone for National Airspace System
Source: Federal Aviation Administration (FAA):
https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/approaches/
Satellite Navigation’s Mission SBAS/GBAS

Implementation & Performance-Based Navigation
Efficient, Flexible Routing
Vector
-Free
Streamlined Arrivals
Departures All-Weather
Approaches
Benefits:
• Enhanced Safety • Increased Flight Efficiencies
• Increased Capacity • Increased Schedule Predictability
• Reduced Delays • Environmentally Beneficial Procedures
Communication
Wide Area Augmentation

satellite GPS satellite
L band
Navigation
message
C band
System (WAAS)
Navigation message:
Use/Don't use
Orbit corrections
Iono corections
Clock correction
Ranging signal
User
Ground Earth
Station
WAAS reference
stations network
Collect satellite data
(GPS signal errors) Master Station
Process data;
• The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of

Develop corrections.
Transportation (DOT) have developed the WAAS program for use in

precision flight approaches.
• Currently, GPS alone does not meet the FAA's navigation

requirements for accuracy, integrity, and availability.
• WAAS corrects for GPS signal errors caused by ionosphere

disturbances, timing, and satellite orbit errors, and it provides vital
integrity information regarding the health of each GPS satellite.
WAAS
 Enhanced Navigation for All Phases of Flight
 Enroute, Arrival, and Departure: Provides Navigation Services
to Users Not Currently Served by Land Based Navigation Aids
 Increases Availability of GNSS
 Vertically Guided Aircraft Approach:
 Enhances Safety by Providing Vertical Guidance
 No Ground Hardware Required at Airport
 Allows Instrument Operations to All Capable Airports
 Supports Every Runway in Coverage Area
 Provides Safety of Life Integrity Services today

 Use Expanding Globally
 SBAS Can Augment Multiple Satellite Navigation
System Constellations
 PRN-138 & SES-15 (PRN:122, 133, 134, & 135 completed life).
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)

Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS)
It is an all-weather aircraft landing system based on real-time differential correction of the
GPS signal. Local reference receivers send data to a central location at the airport. This data
is used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF data
link. A receiver on an aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then
provides a standard ILS-style display to use while flying a precision approach.
GBAS (LAAS) Architecture

GPS Aided Geo Augmentation Navigation (GAGAN)

• India and US cooperation to integrate GPS for ground based positioning.
• Joint venture of ISRO and AAI for 770 crores
• Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) certified GAGAN for enroute operations
(RNP 0.1) on December 30, 2013 and subsequently on April 21, 2015 for
precision approach services (APV 1).
• APV1 Certified GAGAN signals are being broadcast with effect from May 19, 2015.
• GAGAN is the first SBAS system in the world to serve the equatorial region.
• Provides Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required
for civil aviation applications over Indian AirSpace.
• To improve air traffic and other civil navigation resulting in fuel efficient air
corridors.
• Enable satellite based landing of aircraft fitted with SBAS Receivers.
• Compatible and Interoperable with other SBAS. Provides Seamless navigation.
GAGAN Ground Stations
Source: http://insidegnss.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/janfeb16-GAGAN.pdf
GAGAN
Certified for required Navigation Performance
(RNP) services including Lateral Precision with
Vertical Guidance (LPV)
Satellite Type:
SBAS Satellite ID: GAGAN GSAT-8 (127)/ GSAT-10 (128)
EGNOS: System Design

Geostationary GPS GLONASS
Satellites
Navigation
Reference
Signal Navigation
(C-band) Signals
(L-band)
NLES Master Control Centre Wide Area Ground Segment

•Transmits navigation •Generates NAV signal •Provides monitoring network
and integrity data •Processes integrity •Checks integrity
information •Collects GPS/GLONASS/GEO
•Provides WADGNSS data
corrections
EGNOS Data Access Service (EDAS)

The EGNOS Data Access Service (EDAS#) offers ground-based access to
EGNOS data through the Internet (SISNeT protocol) on a controlled access
basis and disseminates differential corrections (NTRIP (version 2.0) protocol)
in RTCM format.
EUROCONTROL (http://www.eurocontrol.int/)
the European organization for the Safety of Air navigation. Operating using
INMARSAT GEOs and ESA ARTEMIS
A civil and military organisation which currently numbers 38 Member States.
Primary objective is to ensure safety in the development of a seamless,
pan-European Air Traffic Management (ATM) system to cope with capacity needs
and environmental aspects.
#Source: https://egnos-user-support.essp-sas.eu/new_egnos_ops/services/about-edas
EGNOS RIMS Network

A network of 40 Ranging Integrity Monitoring Stations (RIMS), 2 Mission Control
Centres (MCC), 6 Navigation Land Earth Stations (NLES), and the EGNOS Wide
Area Network (EWAN), provides the communication network for all the
components of the ground segment.
Source: https://www.gsa.europa.eu/european-gnss/egnos/egnos-system
QZSS - Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

• A four-satellite regional time transfer system and SBAS for
the GPS in Japan (#SPI-QZS-1/2/3/4).
• QZSS is targeted at mobile applications, to provide
communications-based services (video, audio, and data)
and positioning information
• Its positioning service could also collaborate with the
geostationary satellites in Japan's MTSAT
#SPI: satellite property information

Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System

• MSAS is a Japanese SBAS which supports DGPS designed to supplement
the GPS system by reporting (then improving) on the reliability and accuracy of
those signals. Tests had been accomplished successfully, MSAS for aviation use
was commissioned on September 27, 2007.
• SBAS enabled GPS receiver is able to correct its own position, offering a much
greater accuracy. Typically GPS signal accuracy is improved from some 20 meters
to approximately 1.5–2m in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions.
• Continue operation with 2 signals via 1 GEO.
 MTSAT-1R decommissioned in Dec. 2015.
 Hawaii and Australia MRS sites are
removed in Feb. 2015.
Satellite Name & Details NMEA / PRN Location

MTSAT-1R (decommissioned) NMEA #42 / PRN #129 140°E
MTSAT-2 NMEA #50 / PRN #137 145°E
Satellite Based Augmentation System (Japan)

MSAS: MTSAT Satellite Augmentation System (PRN#129, PRN#137)
MTSAT: weather and aviation satellites
GPS Satellites MTSAT-2
Ranging Signals
Augmentation Signals
Sapporo
Users GMS
Kobe MCS
(and GMS)
Fukuoka GMS
Hitachi-Ota MCS
Tokyo (and GMS)
GMS
Ground
Network
Naha GMS
Source: https://app.qzss.go.jp/GNSSView/gnssview.html?t=1568606845861
MSAS MTSAT-1R MTSAT-2

GLONASS (decommissioned, 2015) GPS
GPS
Galileo
Overlay
L1 / L2 Primary
Ka/Ku
Beidou L1/L2
GMS GMS GMS GMS MRS MRS

GEONET Naha FukuokaTokyo Sapporo Hawaii Australia
GSI ACC ACC ACC ACC NES-1 NES-2 NES-1 NES-2
(Shinjuku,
Tokyo) CPF CPF
NCS NCS
International
ACC Area Control Centre Kobe MCS Ibaraki MCS Network
MCS Master Control Station (backup)
NES Navigation Ground Earth Station
CPF Central Processing Facility
NCS Network Communication System QZSS Control Center
MRS Monitoring and Ranging Station Hitachi-Ota (Primary)
GMS Ground Monitor Station
QZSS TTC Stations
Master
Stations
• 7 TTC (Telemetry, Tracking, and Command) stations: Most are at the

southern part of Japan for satellite visibility.
• All TTC stations were built and set operational by the end of 2016.
Quiz Time
• SDCM SBAS system belongs to: • Satellite control facility for IRNSS is situated as:
• China • Bhopal & Hasan
• Russia • Jodhpur & Hyderabad
• Japan • Dehradun & Hasan
• India • Banglore and Mahendragiri
• The Role of the Geostationary Satellite is to: • Ranging is provided by:

• Repeat, Broadcast Corrections • IRCDR
• Cancel Noise • IP67
• Both of the above
• IP68
• None of the above
• none
• Integrity is the……….that can be placed in the

• SIS in SISNeT stands for:
correctness of information supplied by a navigation
• Signal-In-Space (SIS) through the internet
system.
• Signal-In-Signal (SIS) through the internet
• Trust
• Both the aboe
• RMSE
• None of the above
• SD
• none
• MTSAT satellites are:
• weather and aviation satellites
• GAGAN is initiated by:
• GPS Satellites
• HAL & ISRO
• Belongs to India
• ISRO & AAI
• Belongs to China
• ISRO & BHEL
• ISRO & DRDO
System of Differential Correction and Monitoring

SDCM consists of Reference Stations (RSs) , central processing facilities, uplink stations and terrestrial
broadcasting Integrated use of GPS and GLONASS. In addition to the GEO broadcast, it is foreseen that
SDCM provides internet and GSM broadcast from a SISNeT server and an NTRIPserver. Development of
GLONASS system (Roskosmos or Russian Space Agency, Ministry of Defense):
• Minimal operation capability (18 satellites)
• Full operation capability (24 satellites)
• The SDCM services are: Accuracy of 1 to 1.5 meters in the horizontal plane and of 2 to 3 meters in
vertical. In addition, it is expected to offer a cm-level positioning service for users at a range of 200
kilometers of the reference stations.
SDCM Space Segment: includes 3 operating geostationary satellites of multifunctional Space System Luch,
broadcasting SDCM data to users by means of SBAS radiosignals
Fig.: Service area of SDCM
Source: http://www.sdcm.ru/smglo/ICD_SDCM_1dot0_Eng.pdf
Beidou / Compass navigation system

• Satellite Navigation Augmentation System (SNAS)
• Independent global satellite navigation system
• Mainly for China
• constellation of 35 satellites, which include 5 geostationary orbit
(GEO) satellites and 30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites
• CDMA based signal
User terminals of Beidou system

China Satellite-Based Augmentation System
BeiDou Satellite Navigation System is designed integrating of the basic

navigation system and the Satellite-Based Augmentation System, and it can
provide basic navigation service as well as differential augmentation service.
The service has been on line since Dec. 27th, 2012.
At the same time, experiments on the Satellite-Based Augmentation

technology that provides service to GPS L1 C/A based on BeiDou GEO satellites
have been implemented, and the results have demonstrated its feasibility.
Source: http://www.csno-tarc.cn/system/constellation&ce=english
Source: https://www.glonass-iac.ru/en/BEIDOU/
SACCSA
The SBAS initiative in South/Central America and the Caribbean is called
SACCSA (Soluciόn de Aumentaciόn para Caribe, Centro y Sudamérica).
ICAO project founded by the Participants/Member States of the SACCSA Project:

Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, Spain, Venezuela
and COCESNA (Corporación Centroamerica de Servicios de Navegación Aérea).
Continuously Operating Reference Stations

(CORS)
The U.S. CORS network, managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, archives and
distributes GPS data for precise positioning tied to the National Spatial Reference System. Over 200
private, public, and academic organizations contribute data from over 1,800 GPS tracking stations to
CORS. The web-based Online Positioning User Service (OPUS) offers free post-processing of GPS data
sets to the centimeter level using CORS information. CORS is also being modernized to support real-time
users.
Source: http://www.gps.gov/systems/augmentations/
Interactive Map of CORS: http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS_Map/
CORS (India): Dept. of Space, Ministry of Earth Sciences

Continuously Operating Reference System

http://www.igs.org/network
Global Differential GPS (GDGPS)

GDGPS is a high accuracy GPS augmentation system, developed by the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to support the real-time positioning, timing,
and determination requirements of NASA science missions.
GDGPS System provides sub-decimeter (<10 cm) positioning accuracy and

sub-nanosecond time transfer accuracy anywhere in the world, on the
ground, in the air, and in space, independent of local infrastructure.
Future: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS).
International GNSS Service (IGS)

IGS is a network of over 350 + GPS monitoring stations from 200 contributing
organizations in 80 countries. Its mission is to provide the highest quality data
and products as the standard for global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) in
support of Earth science research, multidisciplinary applications, and
education, as well as to facilitate other applications benefiting society.
Approximately 100 IGS stations transmit their tracking data within one hour of
collection.
TDRSS Augmentation Service for Satellites (TASS)
The TDRSS (Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System) Augmentation Service for
Satellites (TASS) is an application using current technology being tested to relay
real-time GDGPS augmentation messages to near-Earth spacecraft via TDRSS to
approximately decimeter (about four inches) level accuracy. TASS would enable
significant improvements in the accuracy and automation of TDRS orbit
determination.
https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/communications/policy/policy_gnss.html
Commercial Augmenting Systems / Telematics Service Providers

• StarFire (navigation system) – developed by John Deere’s NavCom and precision farming
groups to achieve 4.5 cm over 24 hr. period.
• STARFIX commercial services for offshore accurate positioning
• OmniSTAR
• TomTom Telematics
• Trimble Navigation
• Mix Telematics
• Fleetmatics
• Daimler FleetBoard GmbH
• KORE
• Actsoft
• Masternaut
• Ctrack
Source: www.technavio.com/report/global-machine-machine-m2m-and-connected-devices-
commercial-telematics-market
References (for case studies using GPS/DEMs)

1. D. Yamazaki et al., “A high-accuracy map of global terrain elevations,” Geophys. Res. Lett., vol. 44, no. 11, pp. 5844–5853, 2017.
2. N. Robinson, J. Regetz, and R. P. Guralnick, “EarthEnv-DEM90: A nearly-global, void-free, multi-scale smoothed, 90m digital elevation model from fused ASTER and SRTM data,” ISPRS J.
Photogramm. Remote Sens., vol. 87, pp. 57–67, Jan. 2014.
3. D. Yamazaki, D. Ikeshima, J. Sosa, P. D. Bates, G. H. Allen, and T. M. Pavelsky, “MERIT Hydro: A High-Resolution Global Hydrography Map Based on Latest Topography Dataset,” Water
Resour. Res., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 5053–5073, 2019.
4. Bhardwaj, A. (2020). Evaluating terrain type using geoid heights obtained from different geoids in varied topographic regions with different complexity, MOL2NET 2020, International
Conference on Multidisciplinary Sciences, 6th edition, USEDAT-08: USA-Europe Data Analysis Training Program Workshop, Miami, USA.
5. Bhardwaj, A. (2020). Quality Assessment of Openly Accessible Fused EarthEnv-DEM90 DEM and its comparison with MERIT DEM using Ground Control Points for Diverse Topographic
Regions, MOL2NET 2020, International Conference on Multidisciplinary Sciences, 6th edition, USINEWS-04: US-IN-EU Worldwide Science Workshop Series, UMN, Duluth, USA.
6. Sadasiva Rao, B., Anil Kumar, G., Gopala krishna, P. V. S. S. N., Srinivasulu, P., & Raghu Venkataraman, V. (2012). Evaluation of EGM 2008 with EGM96 and its Utilization in Topographical
Mapping Projects. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 40(2), 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-011-0131-1
7. A. Bhardwaj, R. S. Chatterjee, and K. Jain, “Assimilation of DEMs generated from optical stereo and InSAR pair through data fusion,” Sci. Res., vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 39–44, 2013.
8. A. Bhardwaj, K. Jain, and R. S. Chatterjee, “Generation of high-quality digital elevation models by assimilation of remote sensing-based DEMs,” J. Appl. Remote Sens., vol. 13, no. 04, p. 1,
Oct.
9. R. Agarwal, K. Sur, and A. S. Rajawat, “Accuracy assessment of the CARTOSAT DEM using robust statistical measures,” Model. Earth Syst. Environ., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 471–478, Mar. 2020.
10. Saini, O., Bhardwaj, A., Chatterjee R.S. (2019). Generation of Radargrammetric Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Vertical Accuracy Assessment using ICESat-2 Laser Altimetric Data and
Available Open-Source DEMs, 39th INCA International Congress on New Age Cartography And Geospatial Technology in Digital India, 18-20 December, Dehradun.
11. Maldives study: https://www.gim-international.com/files/0812346fc5116deee99fe6f235d260dc.doc
12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329043644_ACCURACY_EVALUATION_OF_VARIOUS_SATELLITE_IMAGERY_PRODUCTS_FOR_LARGE_SCALE_TOPOGRAPHIC_MAPPING
Email- Ashutosh@iirs.gov.in
Tel- 0135-2524117
Geographic Phenomena -
Concepts and Examples
Prasun Kumar Gupta
Geoinformatics Department
Indian Institute Of Remote Sensing
Online Certificate Course on “Remote Sensing & GIS Technology and Applications”
for University Teachers & Government Officials (June 13 -July 01, 2020)
June 20, 2020
Slides adapted from several sources including ITC, The Netherlands, Books (Burrough, Chang, Maidment) and Internet.
Introduction
Geographic phenomena are
the study objects of a GIS.
Geographic phenomena exist

in the real world, everything
you see outside is a
Geographic phenomenon.
Some of the things you do

not see are also Geographic
phenomena like temperature.
Real world  Spatial data
Data model represents the linkages between the real

world domain of geographic data and the computer or
GIS representation of these features (Marble et al, 1982).
Geographic phenomena
A geographic phenomenon is a manifestation of
an entity or process of interest that:
• Can be named or described
• Can be geo-referenced
• Can be assigned a time interval at which it
is/was present
Description: IIRS Main Building
Location: 30°20'27.1"N 78°02'39.0"E
Established in: 1966
Courses: M.Tech., M.Sc. etc.

Google Map screenshot
Types of Geographic Phenomena
• A (geographic) field is a geographic
phenomenon for which, for every point in the
study area, a value can be determined.
(temperature, pressure and elevation)
• A (geographic) object is a geographic

phenomenon that does not cover the total
study area, the space in between objects is
potentially empty or undetermined. (buildings,
rivers)
Objects
• Example: Building
• Characteristics:
• Crisp boundaries
• Inside the boundary only one value
Image source: http://www.nyc-architecture.com/LM/LM.htm

Field
• Examples:
• Temperature
• Barometric
Pressure
• Elevation
• Characteristics:
• On the image on
the left you can
measure elevation
(height)
everywhere
Image source: http://www.vt.edu/spotlight/innovation/2011-08-01-ecuador/potato.html

Field (Continuous)
• Continuous means that
all changes in field
values are gradual
• In a differentiable field
we can measure the
change.
• In the example on the
left, we can measure
the gradient (slope) as
the change of
elevation.
Field (Discrete)
• Discrete fields cut up
the study space in
subparts with a clear
boundary, with all
locations in one part
having the same value
• Typical examples are
land classifications,
geological classes, soil
types, landuse types,
crop types or natural
vegetation types
Types of Geographic Phenomena
Boundaries
• Both objects and
discrete fields have
boundaries
• Two different types of
boundaries
• Crisp boundaries
• Fuzzy boundaries
Image source: http://geology.wlu.edu/harbor/geol260/lecture_notes/notes_prob1.html

Summary geographic phenomena
Computer representation
• So far we only discussed geographic
phenomena, in the following slides we discuss
computer representation.
• Computer representation can be divided in two
groups:
• Tessellations
• Vector based representation
• Now we will see how computer representations
can be applied to represent geographic fields
and objects.
Tessellation (Regular)
• A tessellation is a
partitioning of space
into mutually exclusive
cells that together
make up the complete
study area.
• The cells are of the
same shape and size,
and the field attribute
value assigned to a cell
is associated with the
entire area occupied by
the cell.
• The size of the area
that a single raster
sq.
cell represents is
called the raster’s
resolution.
• When we represent a
continuous field, values
are changing
constantly
• In a regular tessellation
each cell has only one
value, that represents
the total area of a cell
(average elevation)
• There will be a
continuity gap between
adjacent cells
• Two ways to improve
on this continuity issue:
1. Make the cell size
smaller
2. Assume that the cell
value only represents
one specific location
and provide a good
interpolation function
for all other locations
Cell size
Source: http://help.arcgis.com/en/arcgisdesktop/10.0/help/index.html#/Cell_size_of_raster_data/009t00000004000000/
Raster
• A raster is a set of
regularly spaced (and
contiguous) cells with
associated (field)
values.
• The associated values
represent cell values,
not point values.
• This means that the
value for a cell is
assumed to be valid for
all locations within the
cell.
Tessellation (Irregular)
• Irregular tessellations are again partitions of
space into mutually exclusive cells, but now the
cells vary in size and shape, allowing them to
adapt to the spatial phenomena they represent.
• Example: Quadtrees, Run length encoding
Source: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog486/book/export/html/1758
Vector based - Point (0-D)
• Points are defined as single coordinate pairs
(x, y) when we work in 2D or coordinate triplets
(x, y, z) when we work in 3D
• Points are used to represent objects, that are
shape- and size less (zero-dimensional)
• Examples:
• Cities on India Map
• Schools on Chandigarh Map
Vector - Line (1-D)
• Used to represent one-
dimensional objects (roads,
railroads, canals, rivers…)
• Line is defined by 2 end
nodes and 0-n internal
nodes.
• An internal node or vertex
is like a point that only
serves to define the line
• Many GISs store a line as a
sequence of coordinates of
its end nodes and vertices,
assuming that all its line
segments are straight.
Line (2)
• By increasing the
number of internal
vertices, we can
improve the shape
• Number of vertices
determines the
precision.
• Scale is related to the
spatial accuracy - lower
number of internal
vertices - coarse scale
- generalization.
Vector - Area (Polygon) (2-D)
• When area objects are
stored using a vector
approach, the usual
technique is to apply a
boundary model.
• This means that each area
feature is represented by
some arc/node structure
that determines a polygon
as the area’s boundary.
• Area features of the same
type are stored in a single
data layer, represented by
mutually non-overlapping
polygons.
Triangulated Irregular
Networks
• A vector-based representation of
a surface
• Commonly used in applications
that involve terrain
• Composed of a series of
contiguous, non-overlapping
triangles that are known as faces
• Built from a series of points using
a technique called Delaunay
triangulation
• Advantages: More efficient at
storing data
• Also used to construct Thiessen
polygons, which form the basis for
interpolating to areas.
Source: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog486/book/export/html/1758
TIN (Examples)
SLOPE ASPECT
REPRESENTATIONS OF
GEOGRAPHIC FIELDS
(CONTINUOUS)
• Continuous fields (like
elevation) can be
represented as:
• Tessellation
• Isolines
• TIN
• Continuous fields when
represented as a
tessellation will lead to
floating point cell values
• Both tessellation and TIN
can be regarded as
surfaces
REPRESENTATIONS OF
GEOGRAPHIC FIELDS
(DISCRETE)
• Discrete fields (like
landuse or soil type)
can be represented
as:
• Tessellation
• Polygons
• Discrete raster
representations will
lead to integer cell
values
Representation of Objects
• Line and point objects
are more awkward to
represent using
rasters, as rasters are
area-based
• Objects are more
naturally represented
in vector
Representation of Objects -
Points as Cells
Line as a Sequence of Cells
Polygon as a Zone of Cells
Comparison
Property Raster Data Model Vector Data Model
Data Structure Simple Complex
Overlaying Easy and Efficient Difficult to perform
Compatible to RS imagery Yes No
Spatial Variability Efficient Insufficient
Programmability Simple Difficult
Storage Inefficient Compact
Geometric Properties Erroneous Correct
Network Analysis Difficult Easy
Map Visual Appeal Less High
Information Variation Based on resolution Based on scale
Topology Not implemented Efficient encoding
Choice of representation
• From the suitable digital representations the
choice is generally based on two issues:
• What original raw data is available?
• What sort of data manipulation does the application

want to perform?
Scale of a map -
Example of representation of cities
• Small scale map • Large scale map

• 1:50million • 1:5000
• Preferably - Point • Preferably - Polygon
Quiz time!
• Fill a option in the correct box
Field Object
(Continuous or (Point, Line or
Discrete) Polygon)
Elevation Points
Canal (1:50,000)
River (1:5000)
Satellite Image (LISS3 - 24m)
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Soil Map (1:250K)
Ward boundary
Quiz time! - Answers
• Fill a option in the correct box
Field Object
(Continuous or (Point, Line or
Discrete) Polygon)
Elevation Points Point
Canal (1:50,000) Line
Large River (1:5000) Polygon
Satellite Image (LISS3 - 24m) Continuous
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Continuous
Soil Map (1:250K) Discrete
Ward boundary Polygon

Q
Thank you
A
prasun @ iirs . gov . in
Introduction to GIS
&
Recent Trends in Geoinformatics
Dr. Sameer Saran

(sameer@iirs.gov.in)
Head, Geoinformatics Department

ISRO, Dept. of Space, Govt. of India
Dehradun, www.iirs.gov.in
Faculty Profile
iirs
Brief Profile : Dr. Sameer Saran
Head, Geoinformatics Department
Course Director, IIRS-ITC Joint Education Programme, UT, The Netherlands
Vice President, Indian Society of Remote Sensing (2020-2022)
Deputy General Secretary, Asian Association of Remote Sensing (AARS)
Co-Chair, ISPRS WG V/3
National Coordinator, Indian Bioresource Information Network (IBIN)
Dr. Sameer Saran is M.Sc Physics and PhD in Geoinformatics. He did Advanced
Research at Wagenningen University, The NL. He is Course Director of IIRS-ITC
JEP on Geoinformatics (M.Sc & PGD) with University of Twente, The
Netherlands
His area of expertise focuses on 3D CityModels, Web GIS, Geohealth, Spatial
Database Management and Citizen Science. He has 20 years of research
experience in Geoinformatics. He has published more than 50 papers in peer
reviewed national and international journals. He is recipient of many national
and international awards to his credit like National Geomatics Award for
Excellence, Indian National Geospatial Award, Outstanding Contribution
Award, ISRO and ASI Award
Outline
• Define GIS & its Characteristics
• Sources of Input Data
• Spatial Data Models
• Spatial data analysis
• Data Types and Values
• Present & Emerging: Concepts and Applications (IIRS Case Studies)
• Decision Support Systems (DSS) & Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)
• 3D GIS/3D Citymodels and its applications
• Data Warehouse, OLAP and Data Cube
• Traffic Monitoring using Wireless Sensors and its Analytics
• Crowdsourcing and Citizen Science
• Air Quality Monitoring Portal (Live)
• Geohealth
• Big Data Analytics and Spatial Information Science
• Change Emphasis
Defining GIS
GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION
SYSTEM
“A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the
following four sets of capabilities to handle geo-
referenced data:
- Input
- Data management (storage and retrieval)
- Manipulation and analysis
- Output.”
(Aronoff, 1989)
GIS Functional Modules
Data Input
Database
Query and Output and

Analysis Visualization
Defining GIS (2)
Toolbox based
for capturing, storing,
- set of tools
retrieving, analyzing and
- a system
displaying which are
- an information system
spatially referenced to earth
Database definitions
- a database system in which most of the data are spatially indexed,
and upon which a set of procedures are operated in order to
answer queries about spatial entities in the database.
Organization based definitions

- a DSS involving the integration of spatially referenced data for
problem solving.
Characteristics of Geographic Data
 Spatial data: features orientation shape,

size & structure
 Non-Spatial data: Information about various
attributes like area, length
& population
Geospatial Data
- “Geographically referenced data that describe both the
location (geometry) and the characteristics of spatial
features.”
(Chang, 2009)
Characteristics of Spatial Data
• spatial reference • where?

• attributes • what?
• spatial relationships • how?
• temporal component • when?
Components of GIS
Hardware
+
Software
+
Data
+
People
GIS
Sources of Input Data
Remote Photo-
Sensing grammetry
ALTM GPS
GIS Database
Hard
Total
Copy
Station
Maps
spatial data models
 two fundamental approaches:
 raster model
 vector model
raster model
The entity information is

explicitly recorded for a
basic data unit
(cell, grid or pixel)
vector model
• In a vector-based GIS data are handled as:
– Points X,Y coordinate pair + label
– Lines series of points
– Areas line(s) forming their boundary
(series of polygons)
line
feature
area
point feature
feature
vector model
layers in an vector-based
model (2)
Topology
Topology is a branch of mathematics that
deals with properties of space that remain
invariant under certain transformations.
Properties : Three spatial relationships
Area: Polygons can be defined by set of lines enclose them

Contiguity: Identification of polygons which touch each other or
connect identify contiguos polgons (left or right)
Connectivity: Identification of interconnected arcs, starting point
& end point of network analysis
Spatial Relationships
disjoint covered by
meet contains
equal covers
inside overlap
Overlay Operation
• Map overlaying involves the integration of

multiple data layers
– vector based
– raster based
Overlay Operation: Vector (polygon) Layers
Result : new set of

polygons common
to both maps
After Bonham-Carter
Overlay Operation: Raster Layers
Map A Map C
5 5 2 2 15 15 12 12
5 5 5 2 MapC= MapA + 10 15 15 15 12
- Arithmatic Operations 6 2 2 2 16 12 12 12 Map C1
- Relational and Logical Operators 6 6 6 6 16 16 16 16 9 9 10 10
9 9 9 10
- Conditional Statements Map B MapC1= MapA + MapB 7 3 3 10 Map C2
- Any Combination 4 4 8 8 7 7 14 14 11 11 60 60
4 4 4 8 11 11 11 60
1 1 1 8 71 33 33 60
1 1 8 8 MapC2= ((MapA - MapB)/(MapA + MapB)) *100 71 71 14 14
Landuse = forest AND Slope = steep

raster versus vector data model
Raster model Vector model
Simple data structure Complex data structure

Easy and efficient overlaying Difficult to perform overlaying
Compatible with Remote Sensing imagery Not compatible with RS imagery
High spatial variability is efficiently represented Inefficient representation of high spatial variability
Simple for programming by user
Same grid cell definition for various attributes
Inefficient use of computer storage Compact data structure

Errors in perimeter and shape Efficient encoding of topology
Difficult to perform network analysis Easy to perform network analysis
Inefficient projection transformations
Loss of information when using large pixel sizes
Less accurate and less appealing map output Highly accurate map output
Spatial Analysis: Vector & Raster based
VECTOR BASED ANALYSIS RASTER BASED ANALYSIS
 Map Overlay  Functions

o Union, Intersect o Local, Focal , Zonal , Global
o Point in Polygon, Line in Polygon,  Map Algebra
Polygon on Polygon o Operators: Boolean, Relational and
 Map manipulation Arithmetic
o Dissolve, Clip, Append, Eliminate, o Functions: Mathematical, Logarithmic,
Update, Erase, Split Arithmetic, Trigonometric, Power
 Proximity Analysis  Terrain Analysis
o Buffer, Multiple Ring Buffer, Point o Derivatives: Contour, Slope, Aspect,
Distance Hillshade, Viewshed
 Pattern Analysis  Hydrology Analysis
o Nearest Neighbour Analysis, o Flow Directions, Flow Accumulation,
Spatial Autocorrelation Stream Order, Watershed etc.
 Network Analysis  Reclassification
o Shortest route
Questions a GIS can Answer?
 LOCATION (Question: What is at ...?)
 CONDITION (Question: Where is it....?)
 TRENDS (Question: What has changed since....?)
 PATTERN (Question: What spatial pattern exists..?)
 MODELING (Question: What if....?)

Geospatial Analysis contd.
Why? Methods?
Answer geographic questions • SIMPLE QUERY
• Where is the nearest school to my
home?
• SPATIAL QUERY
• SINGLE LAYER OPERATION

Make informed decisions • MULTIPLE- LAYER OPERATIONS
• Choosing where to locate a new refinery
Take action, make changes • SURFACE ANALYSIS
• Change an intended hiking route
• NETWORK ANALYSIS
• POINT PATTERN ANALYSIS

Build accurate models
• Modeling effects of change of LULC on soil • SPATIAL MODELING
erosion
Data Types and Values
Different kinds of data values which we can use to represent different

“phenomena”
1. Qualitative Data
(i) Nominal/ Categorical Data – describe data of different
categories (e.g. soil data)
(ii) Ordinal Data – differentiate data by a ranking relationship
(e.g. soil erosion, road network)
2. Numeric Data
(iii) Interval Data – data having known interval between values
(e.g. temperature)
(iv) Ratio Data – data having absolute values
(e.g. population density)
Different kinds of Data & Data Values
 Land Use / Land cover

extracted from the image
Different kinds of data values
Ref: ESRI documents – Using ArcMap
Page Number: 42
COVID-19 Dashboard by the John Hopkins University (JHU)
Page Number: 42
Page Number: 42
Recent Trends in Geoinformatics and its
Applications
Decision Support Systems
33
 A decision support system (DSS) is

a computer based system that
combines data and decision logic as a
tool for assisting a human decision
maker.
 Usually includes a user interface for
communicating with the decision-
maker.
 A DSS does not actually make a
decision,
 but instead assists the human decision-
maker by analyzing data and
 presenting processed information in a
form that is friendly to the decision-
maker.
Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI)
for data sharing
34
SDI is defined as the relevant base

collection of technologies, policies and
institutional arrangements that
facilitate the availability and access to
spatial data.
Source: Hu, Y. & Li, W. (2017). "Spatial Data Infrastructures", The Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge, John P. Wilson (ed.).
http://dx.doi.org/10.22224/gistbok/2017.2.1
SDI as Common Spatial Data Infrastructure
 Organizations and individuals
cooperating
 Using electronic technology to
help find and share

geographic information
 Following mutually accepted
standards
 Developing common base themes
of data
. . .together we create networks of
organizations and unified collections
of data to ease decision-making for
Working with stakeholders to forge a common
common pieces of geography. strategy to build a common infrastructure
Need and Motivation behind 3D City Models iirs
• A 3D city model is a representation of an urban environment with a three-

dimensional geometry of common urban objects and structures, with
buildings as the most prominent feature.
• 3D City Models may be applied in a multitude of application domains for
environmental simulation and decision support
3D City Modeling for harnessing solar energy to iir
develop solar cities
s
•To estimate effective percentage of roof/wall/window of a building contribute to harness solar energy
•To simulate solar heat potentials of buildings on monthly/daily or hourly basis considering sun-earth
geometry
Stage Stage Stage
1 2 3
3D Building Model Generation Semantic Dissection of 3D Model

Simulating Sun Illumination for
Solar Energy Estimation
• Building footprints captured • Transformation of Collada • Conversion of CityGML to (green building)
from Cartosat-1 model to CityGML using gbXML
• 3D model of LoD 3 created Feature Manipulation Engine • Enrichment of semantic information with
using sketch-up/ (FME) additional energy simulation class
CityEngine • Loading CityGML to attributes
• Conversion of sketch-up to PostgreSQL/ PostGIS and • Simulation of building information model
Collada model (*.dae) storing semantic information (BIM) into solar energy estimation using
into RDBMS for semantic Sun-Earth geomatry
Saran, S., P. Wate, S.K. Srivastav and Y.V.N Krishnamurthy,
queries 2015 “CityGML at semantic level for energy conservation strategies” Annals of GIS, Vol. 21,
No. 1, 27-41. (doi:10.1080/19475683.2014.992370)
Wate,P. and Sameer Saran, 2015 “Design of CityGML Energy ADE for integration of Urban Solar potential Indicators using UML “Geocarto International.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2015.1034192.
Traffic Noise Modelling using 3D GIS for Smart City iir
Planning
s
Stage 1- Field Data Collection Stage 2- 3D Model Generation Stage 3- 3D GIS analysis & Visualisation
Collection of Traffic Data and LoD0 (Level of Detail) Model Storage (PostGIS, 3D City DB) &
Noise Level Samples Reconstruction (Satellite Image conversion to CityGML for Semantic
Processing) analysis and integration
Traffic Noise Analysis using LoD2 Model Reconstruction Spatial query at semantic level,
Empirical Relationship (Terrestrial Laser Scanner) rendering & visualisation
Stage 1
Stage 2
Laeq = 37.386 + 9.839* log(Q*(1+(3.1* Ptw +0.7*

Pthw +1.1* Pfw +6.1* Phw)/Q))/log(10)
Stage 3
Konde, A, Sameer Saran and A. Senthil Kumar, 2015. “Web enabled Spatio-temporal semantic
analysis of Traffic Noise using CityGML” Geocarto International (under review).
Data Warehouse and OLAP
A data cube supports viewing/modelling of a variable of interest.
Warehouse is a Specialized DB
Measures are used to report the values of the particular variable with
Standard DB (OLTP) Warehouse (OLAP) respect to a given set of dimensions.

A fact table stores measures as well as keys representing relationships
Mostly updates Mostly reads to various dimensions.
Many small transactions Queries are long and Dimensions are perspectives with respect to which an organization
complex wants to keep record.
Mb - Gb of data Gb - Tb of data A star schema defines a fact table and its associated dimensions.
Current snapshot History OLAP

Raw data Summarized, operations
reconciled data
drilling, rolling,
Thousands of users Hundreds of users
(e.g., clerical users) (e.g., decision-makers, slicing, dicing
analysts) and pivoting
IIRS Geospatial Data Cube
 Huge amounts of satellite data is going
to be generated in coming years.
 Currently IRS data ~600GBs/day.
 Urgent need to have rapid access to
extended, hyper-temporal satellite time
series data.
 Development of multi-dimensional
space time architecture for:
 Easy access of Analysis Ready
Data Products
 Efficient time series analysis and
data assimilation for environmental
characterization and scientific
analysis.
 First of its kind attempt with Indian
Remote Sensing data, IIRS has created
an “Indian Geospatial Cube”, a unified
data management system which can be
used for computations such as filtering,
linear regression, classification, etc. via
a single platform.
IIRS Geospatial Data Cube
 Dice and Stack architecture
 Data to be stored in Nested Grids
 Supports infinite
user applns.,
increasing and
diverse datasets,
and automated
ingestion of new
datasets.
Global attempts
 Public sector:
 NASA Earth Exchange (NEX)
 ESA Cloud Toolbox
 Australian Geoscience Data Cube (AGDC)
 Private sector:
 Google Earth Engine (GEE)
 Amazon Web Services (AWS)
Traffic monitoring using wireless sensors
Traffic Data
Data Pre-processing Store
• Data Cleaning
• Lanewise Filtering
Data Aggregation
(1 m int. lanewise)
Traffic Parameters Congestion Modelling

Vehicle counts, class, direction, speed,
lengths, and vehicle to vehicle gap
Traffic Data Collection Data Processing Data Storage & Visualization
42
CITIZEN SCIENCE
 What is Citizen Science? iirs
 Public involvement in inquiry and
discovery of new scientific knowledge
 Who are Citizen Scientists?
 Volunteers who contributes their
time, effort, and resources toward
scientific research
 Why Citizen Science?
 Bridging Gaps, Scope and Policy
 Citizen science are diverse in: ecology,
medicine, computer science, statistics,
psychology, genetics, engineering and
many more.
CROWDSOURCE BASED APPROACH
https://www.covid19india.org/
• Uses crowdsource data from twitter and other sources which is Data Downloads :
validated by a group of volunteers and published into a Google sheet Data can be downloaded in different
formats (JSON/CSV) using API service
and an API. provided for crowdsourced data.
• Data is updated based on state press bulletins, official (CM, Health M)
handles, PBI, Press Trust of India, ANI reports. These are generally
more recent.
Citizen Science Based Software Solution for Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (SBA)
Salient Features
Turnkey solution for SBA, geo-enabled and based

on the citizen science approach.
End-to-end solution covering all the aspect of

garbage related redressal system required in a
typical municipal setup.
System consists of three applications:
 Citizen app for reporting the garbage

locations, Released by Dr. Krishan Kant Paul
H.E. the Governor, Uttarakhand
 Web based dashboard for visualization, October 4, 2016
reporting, user/vehicle management, job

assignment and GIS based optimize route
determination and
 Cleaner (Worker) app for garbage redressal.
Citizen Science Based Software Solution for Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan (SBA)
Recived Copyright from

Government of India
http://sb.iirs.gov.in
Geospatial Solutions for Governance
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SPECIES WATCH & SPECIES LOSS
Mobile App Web Dashboard
Citizen Science
approach in IBIN
Release of Geospatial Solution for Forest Fire Reporting Mobile
App and Dashboard
By
Hon. Advisor, J & K
On Oct 3, 2018
Mobile App
Dashboard
Jammu & Kashmir Forest Department

Srinagar
Developed by
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (ISRO)
AIR QUALITY MONITORING & FORECAST SYSTEM
(https://airquality.iirs.gov.in/)
A web portal is developed to disseminate model generated forecast fields and satellite based inputs for
the monitoring and analysis of air quality over Indian region.
OVERLAY LAYERS BASE MAPS
• DUST (Current and archive for last • OCM True Colour (Source:IIRS)
two days): PM10, PM2.5 and Dust • Bhuvan Map (Source: Bhuvan)
load • NASA Blue Marble (Source: NASA
• Pollutant Gases (Current and archive Blue Marble, image service by
for last two days): O3, CO, NO2, and OpenGeo)
SO2 • Aerosol Optical Depth (Source:
• Satellite Based aerosol (Last five RAPID-IMD)
observations): AOD, PM2.5 & PM10 • MODIS Aqua Corrected Reflectance
• Active fire data from FIRMS TrueColor (Source: NASA EOSDIS SAT PM 2.5
• Wind forecast based on NCEP-GFS GIBS)
• Air quality index based on forecasted • Aerosol Optical Depth - Terra/
fields (current forecast) MODIS & Aqua/MODIS (Source:
• Vector Layers from Vedas NASA EOSDIS GIBS)
Dust  2 days forecast for dust burden and dust based particulate matter (PM
Forecast 10 and PM 2.5) generated using numerical prediction model WRF fully
coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem). Generated for every 6 hour
interval at 25 km resolution.
Pollutant  WRF-Chem model is being used to simulate two days forecast of four
Gases gaseous air pollutants O3,CO, NO2 and SO2 over the Indian
Subcontinent daily. Generated for every 6 hour interval at 25 km SAT AOD
Satellite  Satellite based estimation of surface level Aerosol Particulate Matter

Based (PM2.5 and PM10) over Indian sub-continent at 12.5 km resolution on
Aerosol daily scale.. Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) is used to
estimate regional PM2.5 & PM10 by combination of INSAT-3D derived
AOD, dispersion, source apportionment, meteorology and ground
based measurements.
Web GIS Functions
• Web mapping open-source leaflet library used with Geoserver as the GIS Server.
• GIS tools like zooming, panning, layers toggle control, transparency, identify etc.
• Python based ETL (Extract, Transform and Load) utility for automating the process of WIND PROFILE
data loading and online publishing as OGC complaint WMS layers.
Geo-Health
• Perspective for exploring dynamic connections

GIS USE AND APPLICATION IN HEALTH
SECTOR IS ESCALATING DAY BY DAY. between people, their health and well-being and
changing physical and social environments.
• Understanding relationships between people,
location, time and health.
• Multi-disciplinary: public health, social policy,
epidemiology, geography, geo-information
science.
• Geographic foundation: “Where?” Where do
people live? Where are the agents of disease?
Where can we intervene to mitigate health risks
or to improve health services delivery.
Components of Geo-Health
CLUSTER Geographic
ANALYSIS Epidemiology
CORRELATION
ACCESSIBILITY Spatial ENVIRONMENT
People
Data
ANALYSIS
Analysis Software
Mapping
Health Care DIFFUSION
Geography
FACILITY
PLANNING
GEO-HEALTH: APPLICATION AREAS
ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH HAZARDS
PUBLIC
RISK OF VECTOR-
PARTICIPATION &
BORNE DISEASE
HEALTH OBSERVE
PEOPLE HEALTH
ANALYZE
MODEL SPREAD OF
HEALTH
INFECTIOUS
DISPARITIES
VISUALIZE DISEASE
SCENARIO
LOCATION TIME
DEVELOPMENT
SPATIAL
LOCATING HEALTH
CLUSTERING OF
SERVICES
HEALTH EVENTS
ACCESS TO
“Health Care Geography” “Geographic Epidemiology”
HEALTH SERVICES
Advanced Visualisation
https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
5
3
Introduction- BIG DATA
Sagiroglu, S., & Sinanc, D.
(2013)
54
 Big data is basically defined as a huge collection of myriad datasets which is difficult to
process by using the traditional data processing platforms or state of the art approaches
for data processing (Chen & Zhang, 2014)
 “… a blanket term for any collection of data sets so large and complex that it
becomes difficult to process using on-hand database management tools or
traditional data processing applications.” (Wiki, 2014)
Big Data are the increasingly available

digital trails (exhausts) from the
ubiquitous information gathering
technologies. (Australian Bureau of
Statistics)
“… the digital universe will be 44 times

bigger this year than it was in 2009,
totaling a staggering 35 zettabytes…”
(IDC report)
Source: https://shhrota.com/2012/01/02/the-big-in-big-data/
Introduction- BIG DATA
55
Source: http://www.ibmbigdatahub.com/infographic/four-vs-big-data
Twitter Analytics- A Use Case
 USA vs Portugal
World Cup
Football Match
June, 2014
 Analysis of billions
of tweets (White
= USA Fans; Red
= Portugal Fans)
Source: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/06/24/tweets-lit-up-the-map-through-u-s-portugal-world-cup-game/
Spatial Data Science
• Data Science:
– is an inter-disciplinary field that uses scientific methods,
processes, algorithms and systems to extract knowledge
and insights from many structural and unstructured data.
– is related to data mining and big data.
• Spatial Data Science (SDS):
– allows analysts to extract deeper insight from data using a
comprehensive set of analytical methods and spatial
algorithms,
– including machine learning and deep learning techniques.
https://earthengine.google.com/
• SDS therefore primarily involves

Data Science GIS Spatial Spatial Spatial Data Spatial Data Application domain
DBMS Statistics Mining and Visualization knowledge
ML
Changing Emphases:
…From Data to Analysis
Spatial Analysis
Spatial 5% Analysis
10-15% Attribute Tagging

Attribute Tagging
75% Data Conversion

Data Conversion:
Past Present/Future
The application of GIS is limited only by the
imagination of those who use it
Jack Dangermond
Thank you..
Faculty Profile
Shiva Reddy Koti,
Geoinformatics Department,
Geospatial Technology and Outreach Group,
IIRS, ISRO
Shiva Reddy Koti holds M.Tech in Geomatics Engg. from IIT, Roorkee and B.E
in Information Technology from Govt. Engg. College , Bilaspur (C.G).
His area of expertise is in the field of geospatial software development , and
Health GIS. He has been actively involved in the teaching and R&D activities
in GIS, Health GIS, Web GIS, Programming , Data Mining and Databases.
He is QGIS 3 contributor and the author of popular QGIS plugin “QRealTime”.
His FOSS4G contributions can be followed at
https://github.com/shivareddyiirs/
Data Inputting and Editing

in GIS
Shiva Reddy Koti

Scientist/Engg. ‘SD’, Geoinformatics Department
shivareddy@iirs.gov.in
2
22-Jun-20
How we used to collect spatial data

How we collect spatial data now

DATA INPUT and Sources

Manually digitizing from image or map sources
• manually drawn maps
• legal records
• coordinate lists with associated tabular data
•Aerial photographs
Field coordinate measurement
• Coordinate Surveying
• GPS
Image data
• Manual or automated classification
• direct raster data entry
Digitize from Toposheet
Based on
coordinate
surveys
Plotted and
printed
carefully
Field Measurement
GPS
Coordinate Surveying
(courtesy NGS)
Satellite and Aerial Imagery

Image Data Spatial Data in a GIS
Scanner and Digitiser

Scanner
 Drum Scanner
 Flat Bed Design
Scanner Quality (dpi):
dpi: Dot per Inch
Quiz
1. If Scanner properties are as below:
Scanner pixels: 1000X1000

And paper size : 10cm X 10 cm
What is the DPI of the scanner?
a) 254
b)25.4
c)2.54
d) None of the above
Manual Digitisation Overview
1. Scan map or image

2. If image not referenced, collect ground
coordinates of control points
3. Digitize control points (tics, reference points, etc.)
of known location
4. Transform (register) image to known coordinate
system
5. Digitize feature boundaries in stream or point
mode
Scanning
Scanning Line : Multiple Pixels

Scanning and Digitisation

Manual and Automatic Digitisation

Manual Digitizing
•nodes at line
endpoints
•vertices
define line
shape
Manual Digitizing
common errors that require editing
Correcting errors
Editing
Line snapping:
When a vertex or node is “close” to a line or
end point, the lines are “snapped” together
Point snapping:
Points which fall within a specified distance of
each other are snapped (typically, on point
eliminated).
Snapping
Manual Digitizing – Vertex Density

Automated Digitisation
Digitizing Maps - Automated Scanners

• Suitable threshholding allows determination
of line or point features from the hardcopy
map.
• Scanners work best when very clean
map materials are available
• Significant editing still required
(thinning, removing unwanted features)
Cell Thinning and Vectorizing– After

Scan-Digitizing
Direct Vector and Raster Digital Data

input
 GPS Files  Geocoded Satellite Image
 ASCII/EXCEL files  Image Classification outputs
 Vectorisation of raster
Summary
Digitisation Overview
• Scan map or image

• If image not referenced, collect ground coordinates of
control points
• Digitize control points (tics, reference points, etc.) of
known location
• Transform (register) image to known coordinate
system
• Digitize feature boundaries in stream or point mode.
• Edit
Email- shivareddy@iirs.gov.in
Tel-01352524126
GIS Data Model
Ashutosh Kumar Jha

Scientist-’SE’
Geoinformatics Department IIRS
akjha@iirs.gov.in
1
22-Jun-20
Faculty Profile
 Ashutosh Kumar Jha is scientist SE in Geoinformatics department.
He holds M.Tech. in remote sensing and B.E. in Computer
Engineering.
 His area of expertise is Geospatial modeling and processing
optimization of raster/vector Data using High performance
distributed computing.
 Currently he is working on BigGIS, Machine Learning and 3D
Modeling.
 He has been actively involved in Weather Forecast and air quality
application development. He has built a open source LULC dynamics
modeling framework called OpenLDM.
https://github.com/ashutoshkumarjha/OpenLDM
 He has been awarded Best Innovation Award in ACRS-2017 for the
development of mobile application for Municipals.
Contents
 How GIS analysis is dependent upon GIS data

structure?
 GIS Data Structure
 File based to DBMS based
 Spatial Relationship
 Open Standards based datamodel
GIS Analysis Example

 How to reach a place from A to B
A to B
?
User Requirement
Or
Questions
GIS and Interaction

Reality Analysis
Human
Machine
GIS
GIS Requirement GIS Questions Solutions Answered
Process/Models
Use and Uses

data Organization
GIS Data
GIS Requirement Dissemination Answered
Interactive Analysis Process
Information and Humane Analysis

Information Analysis
 A is IIRS  Route A to B is IIRS via
 B is Clock Tower Kalidas Road to New Cant
 A is at 30°20’3"N+78°02’4"E
Road to Clock tower at
Rajpur Road
 B is at 30°19‘3"N 78°02'30"E
 Time to reach 8-20 min
 A is at Kalidas Road
 B is at Junction of Rajpur A
and Chakrata road
 Kalidas Road is connected A to B
to Rajpur Road from new

?
Cant Road
B
Machine Data Human
Machine
Information Machine Data

 A is IIRS  A is point geometry
 B is Clock Tower
 A and B is point geometry with
coordinate
 A is at 30°20’3"N,78°02’4"E 30°20’3"N,78°02’4"E and
 B is at 30°19‘3"N,78°02'30"E 30°19‘3"N, 78°02'30"E
 New Cant Road, Rajpur road,
 A is at Kalidas Road
Kalidas road are Line geometry
 B is at Junction of Rajpur with intermediates segments
and Chakrata road  Each line average travel time
 Kalidas Road is connected
entered are 4 min, 7 min ,
6min are attributes
to Rajpur Road from new
Analysis
Cant Road
 Time to reach 7 min now
Find the Path from location A (IIRS) to location B (Clock tower)

Machine Data Organisation

Machine Data GIS Spatial Data
 A is point geometry  Geometry
 A and B is point geometry with  Points
coordinate 30°20’3"N+78°02’4"E and  #pId, Location,
30°19‘3"N 78°02'30"E  Line
 New Cant Road, Rajpur road, Kalidas  #lid, Points on Line
road are Line geometry with Segments, Line Segments
intermediates segments  Attribute
 Each line average travel time entered  Points
are 4 min, 7 min , 6min
 #pId , Name
 Line
2D Data GIS Data  #lId Road Name, Length,
travel time
3D Data
Map Database
Extra Auxiliary Data
Vector Raster TIN Relational  Coordinate Systems, Extent,
scale
GIS Spatial Data Structure

Coordinate System Spatial Data Format
Vector Raster
Location Reference Plane
TIN
3D globe to 2D
Map Data Structure
(Spherical to Cartesian)
Basic Vector Data Structure

Point ID X Y
#1 1.xx 1.xx
#10
(5,9) #2 3.xxx 1.xx
….. 3.xx 3.xx
PL1 #10 5.xx 9.xx
(3,6) #9
(2,4)
#8 #6 #2 Line ID Begin End Node List
(3,5) #7
#3 (4,5) Node Node
#5 #4 #4
(4,5) #1 #1 #4 #1,#2,#3,#4
(3,3)
#l1 #3
#2 #7 #9 #7,#8,#9
#2
(1,1) (3,1) #4 #5 #4 #5,#6,#4
#1
Polygon ID Lines
Reference Coordinate System
PL1 #2,#3,#4
(Projected or GCS)
Tabular Structure
Vector Data Model: Spaghetti

"spaghetti“ Model
 simple
 easy to manage
 no topology
 lots of duplication,
hence need for large
storage space
 very often used in
CAC (computer
assisted cartography)
A: Polygon
B: Point
C: Line
Vector Data Model:DIME

vertex dictionary Dual Independent Map
Encoding (DIME) format
i
h
g
• No duplication
• No topology
Vector Data Model:ARC

File 1. Coordinates of nodes and vertex for all the arcs
ARC F_node Vertex T_node
1 3.2, 5.2 1, 5.2 1,3
2 1,3 1.8,2.6 2.8,3 3.2, 5.2
3.3,4
3 1,2 3.5,2 4.2,2.7 5.2,2.7
File 2. Arcs topology

ARC F_node T_node R_poly L_poly
1 1 2 External A
2 2 1 A External
3 3 4 External External
File 3. Polygons topology File 4. Nodes topology

Polygon Arcs Node Arcs
A 1, 2 1 1,2
2 1,2
3 3
4 4
5 5
ARC / NODE structure or POLYVRT

OGC Simple Feature Model
 The Geometry class

 Geometry is the root class of the hierarchy.
Geometry is an abstract class.
 The subclasses of Geometry are restricted to 0, 1
and 2 dimensional geometric objects that exist in
two-dimensional coordinate space.
 All geometry classes are defined so that valid
instances of a geometry class are topologically
closed (i.e. all defined geometries include their
boundary).
OGC Simple Feature Model
The Geometry class

 Any geometry has a spatial reference system: the
yardstick against which units are measured (use one
SRS per project!)
 Plain geometries are: Point, LineString, Line,
LinearRing, Polygon
 Geometric collection types: MultiPoint, -LineString, -
Polygon. Geometry
 Besides the methods of the class, there exist ++ boundary() : Geometry

coordinateDimention() : int
+ dimension() : int
methods for testing Spatial Relations between ++ geometryType() : string
isEmpty() : boolean
geometric objects and Spatial Analysis.

+ spatialDimension() : int
+ SRID() : int
+ envelope() : Geometry
Collection Feature Model

 Single type
 Point, LineString and Polygon
 Homogeneously typed Rest Location
multipart
 MultiPoint: a value is a set
of points Cycle Path
 MultiLineString : a value is
a set of linestrings.
 MultiPolygon : a value is a
set of polygons Department
 GeometryCollection: a
value is a hybrid set of
singular geometries
Department Area
Raster Grid Coordinate System

Col Number(X)
L 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i 1         
n 2         
e 3         
4          Pixel (8,-4) Center
n
5         
u
m 6        46  f(8,-6)=46
b 7         
e 8         
r 9         
(
Y
• Spatial Arrangement is called Grid • Raster resolution to be chosen:
)
• Value in cell is attribute ½ of smallest object

• Fixed topology on grid value • Geo-referencing point is only to
the origin
Raster Data Representation
#10
(5,9) 1
PL1
(3,6) #9
(2,4) 2 2
#8 #6 #2
(3,5) #7
#3 (4,5) 2 2 2
#5 #4 #4
(4,5) 3 3
(3,3)
#l1 #3 3
#2 3 3
(1,1) (3,1)
#1
Point Polygon
Line
Rasterization Effect
Smoothness of geometry is lost
Raster Data Compression

Run Length Encoding Chain Coding
AAAAAABBBBCCCCCCCCC = 6A4B9C
Grouping Rows of Data Defining the Exterior Boundary
Block Coding Quadtree Encoding
Subdividing Data Into Quarters

Grouping Blocks of Data
Vector Vs Raster
Vector Raster
Based on object model .e.g each Cell based Modal : Full area field
feature is a bounded cover
Position of points can be in fraction X,Y location will always be number
Takes less space Takes more space
Object based either point, line or Basic object cell
polygon
Geometry based analysis Algebra based analysis
All Points are referenced Grids Origin is referenced. Cell
location are computed relative to
origin
File Type: arcInfo (.e00), File Type: Geotiff(.tiff), Erdas
shape(.shp), KML, KMZ, Imagin (*.img), Scientic Format
OpenSteetFormat(.osm) , Autocad (.hdf,.nc) etc
(.dwg and .dxf) , Bently Microsation
(*.dgn)
Triangulated Irregular Network Model

TIN Model
 3D Data model
 Triangle based
 Delaunay Triangle
based
 On triangular height
can be computed
using interpolation
 Node height are
stored
Representing spatiotemporal information

Time-stamping
Snapshot Model Space-Time Composites (STC)
ST-Object model
• Time Dimension : Can be Irregular

• Discrete Change
Src: http://loi.sscc.ru/gis/data_model/may.html
Modeling: spatial relationships

 Topological relationships: e.g. adjacent, inside,
disjoint. Are invariant under topological
transformations like translation, scaling,
rotation
 Metric relationships: e.g. Distance
A way to represent relative relationship between

spatial object invariant to any transformation
disjoint covered by
meet contains
equal covers
inside overlap
valid topological relationships between two simple regions

(no holes, connected)
Modeling: Building topology

Spatial File Formats View

Personal Geodatabase In a gdb, feature
Feature data set class can have
Feature class (feature type = polygon) only one feature
type.
Feature class (feature type = arc)
Coverage (= feature class) A coverage can
have multiple
Network Data (= feature class) feature types-now
viewed as a
shortcoming.
Coverage (= feature class)

Feature type (arc) Tracts feature class table
Feature type (point) (attributes in columns)
Feature type (polygon)
Raster Features
Shapefile (rows)
Attribute (table)
Feature ID Feature Secondary or

(key field) type Foreign key
Spatial File Formats

Info ‘master’ folder for AVCAT workspace
coverage
coverage
Personal Geodatabase
Raster
shapefile
Table
Geodatabase (gdb)
Feature (vector) datasets Anatomy of a Geodatabase
Spatial Reference Geodatabases may contain: feature datasets,
Object classes and subtypes raster datasets, TIN datasets, locators
Feature Classes and subtypes Feature datasets contain vector data
Relationship classes All data in a single feature dataset share a
Network Topology common spatial reference system
Planar topology Similar Objects (e.g. Jane Blow, land owner) are
instances of object classes (e.g. land owners)
and have no spatial form.
Domains
Features and feature classes are spatial objects
(e.g. land parcels) which are similar and have
Validation Rules same spatial form (e.g. polygon)
Object (or feature) classes are the tables, and
Raster Datasets objects (or features) are the rows of the table
rasters Attributes are in the columns of the table
Subtypes are an alternative to multiple object (or
TIN (3-D) datasets feature) classes (e.g. ‘concrete’, ‘asphalt’,
‘gravel’ road subtypes): think of subtype as
nodes, edges, faces the most significant classification variable
(attribute) in the class table
Locators Domains define permitted data values.
addresses x,y locations Topology is saved as a relationship between the
Zip codes place names feature classes in the feature dataset.
route locations
Geojson
 FeatureCollection
 Features Feature Object
 Attribute Geometric Objects

 Geometric Objects
 Point
 MultiPoint
 LineString
 MultiLineString
 Polygon
 MultiPolygon
 GeometryCollection
Evolution of DBMS technology
 Flat file Model

 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Relational Model
 Object-Relational
Attribute Data Relational Organisation
Tuples
Relation Attribute
 Table Based
 One-One,One-Many,Many-One Relatioship
 SQL(Strucure based query for tuples to build
new relatioship or filter relationship
 Relational Alzebra based data organisation for
consistency using normalisation
Email- akjha@iirs.gov.in
Tel- 0135-2524134
Question
 Vector Data has georeferenced information for each point (Y/N)
 Which of these data structure is based on tessellation?
 1. Simple Vector Point
 2. Raster
 3. TIN
 4. Polygon
 Which of these geometrical models have more than one features?
 1. Multipoint
 2. Multiline String
 3. Multipolygon
 4. Geometry Collection
 Which of these is used for raster data format?
 1. Run length encoding Model
 2. Spaghetti Model
 3. Dictionary Model
 4.Dime Model
 How many topological neighbours are there of a vector polygon?
 1. 8
 2. 4
 3. n-numbers
Map Projection Concepts

& Use in RS & GIS
Dr. Ashutosh Srivastava

Indian Institute of Remote Sensing-Dehradun
asrivastava@iirs.gov.in
1
Statistics about the Earth

 Surface Area : 510.1 million km²
 Mass : 5.97237*1024 Kg.
 Equatorial Radius : 6378.137 Km.
 Polar Radius : 6356.752 Km.
 Flattening : 0.0033528
 Age : 4.5 Billion Years
 Elevation of Land : 8848 m (ME)
 Tectonic plates : 7 (African, Antarctic, Australian,
Eurasia, North American, South
American, Pacific )
Earth Seen from Space

• For surveying and mapping, most of the measurements are taken on

the Earth surface.
• The surface of the Earth is an irregular surface. Directly using these

measured values for further computations of distances, area, volume
etc. will give wrong results, because the irregular surface of the Earth
is not mathematical.
We need a mathematical surface which can closely represent

the Earth.
We need a Model of the Earth
• All the measurements can then be reduced to that surface for

computations
• Once the Model of the Earth is decided, we need to locate the positions
of the features.
• Everything is Relative
• Example: Height of a point ( Height above - - ? - - )

• Distance of a place ( From - - ? - - )
• We need a Coordinate System / Reference System / Datum for

defining the positions
• We know that the Earth is not perfectly spherical.
• How to represent the shape of the Earth?
• The shape of the Earth can be best represented by an Ellipsoid
Circle Ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
Reference Ellipsoid
• An Ellipsoid is the mathematical surface which can be generated by rotating
an ellipse about its minor axis. Such ellipsoid is called an Oblate Ellipsoid.
• Semi Major Axis : a Semi Minor Axis : b

• Eccentricity e2 = (a2 - b2 )/ a2
• Flattening f = (a-b)/a
• A Reference Ellipsoid has its centre a close approximation of center of mass

of Earth and minor axis is parallel to axis of rotation of Earth.
• Latitude, Longitude and Ellipsoidal Heights are defined on Reference Ellipsoid.

Earth
Surface
Ellipsoid
b
Semi Minor
Axis
a
Semi Major
Axis
Types of Reference Ellipsoid

• Best Fit Ellipsoid
This ellipsoid is based on the measurements within a region so it best

fits that region only. The center of such reference ellipsoid does not
coincide with the center of gravity of the Earth. An example of such type
of ellipsoid is Everest Ellipsoid, which was used in India.
• Geocentric Ellipsoid
As the name suggests, the center of geocentric ellipsoid coincides with

the center of the Earth. This type of the ellipsoid can be used worldwide.
An examples of this type of ellipsoid are
GRS 80 Ellipsoid and WGS 84 Ellipsoid.
Geocentric
Ellipsoid
Best Fit
Centre of
Ellipsoid
Best Fit
Earth Centre of Ellipsoid
Surface Geocentric
Ellipsoid
Best Fit Ellipsoid and Geocentric Ellipsoid

Indian Datum
• The Indian geodetic datum used till few years back, was realized during 19th century.
• It was a result of Great Trigonometric Survey (GTS) carried out from 1802 to 1839.
The conventional triangulation method was used as it was the best available technique
at that time. The series of connected triangles from southernmost point of India up to
the Himalayan foothills was used to compute the arc distance what was named the
‘Great Arc’.
• The Great Arc measurements were used to determine the geometrical parameters
(semi major axis and semi minor axis) to define the reference ellipsoid which was
named after Sir George Everest as Everest Ellipsoid. This is a locally fit ellipsoid with
following parameters:
Everest GRS 80
• Semi major axis a = 6377301.243 m | a = 6378137 m

• Semi minor axis b = 6356100.231 m | b = 6356752.314 m
Graphical Representation of the Geoid

Geoid
Geoid is an equipotential surface/Level
Surface of earth’s gravity field which best fits
the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
It is nearly ellipsoidal but a complex surface (not a mathematical surface).
It may be defined as surface coinciding with MSL in the oceans and

continuing under the land at the level to which the sea would reach if
allowed to flow through frictionless channels.
Representation of Point
 Horizontal : Ellipsoid
 Vertical : Geoid
h
Earth Surface H
H = Orthometric Height
h = Ellipsoidal Height
N = Geoidal Undulation Geoid
N
Ellipsoid
h P Ellipsoidal
Greenwich Normal
Meridian
Observer’s
Meridian
Latitude : ø Equatorial
Plane
Longitude : λ
Ellipsoidal Height : h
Latitude, Longitude and Ellipsoidal Height

 Latitude: The angle subtended at Equatorial Plane by the

Ellipsoidal Normal through the observer’s point.
 Longitude: The angle between Observer’s Meridian Plane

and Greenwich Meridian Plane.
 Ellipsoidal Height: The height above the surface of ellipsoid,

measured along the ellipsoidal normal.
Map Projection
EARTH :
MAP : 2D
3D
Projection
Lat, Long, Ht x,y

or
X, Y, Z
Map Projection
 Transformation of Three Dimensional Space onto a two dimensional map
 A systematic arrangement of intersecting lines on a plane that represent

and have a one to one correspondence to the meridians and parallels on
the datum surface
Types of Projections
 Equal Area: Maintain equal relative sizes. Used for maps that show distributions or
other phenomena where showing area accurately is important. Examples: Lambart
Azimuthal Equal Area, The Albert Equal Area Conic.
 Conformal: Maintain angular relationships and accurate shapes over small areas. Used
where angular relationships are important such as for navigation and meteorological
charts. Examples: Mercator, Lambert Conformal Conic
 Equidistant: Maintains accurate distance from center of the projection or along given
lines. Used for radio and seismic mapping, and for navigation. Examples: Equidistant
conic, Equirectangular.
 Azimuthal or Zenithal: Maintains accurate directions (and therefore angular

relationships) from a given central point. Used for aeronautical charts and other maps
where directional relational are important. Examples: Gnomonic projection
Classification
• Map projections can be classified based on their method of construction.
• There are many surfaces which are not plane but which can be created
by rolling a plane surface.
• Such types of surfaces are called developing surfaces.
• Cylinder and cone are such surfaces.
• A map projection can be created by placing such surface on a globe,

projecting the features from globe to the surface and then un-wrapping
the surface to make a plane map.
Classification
 A) Based on Extrinsic property
• Nature:
 Plane, Cone, Cylinder
• Coincidence:
 Tangent, Secant, Polysuperficial
• Position:
 Normal, Transverse, Oblique
Azimuthal Projections
Cylindrical Projections
Transverse
Tangent Secant
Oblique
Conic Projections
Intrinsic Property
 Many properties can be measured on the earth's surface. Some of these
properties are:
 Area (Correct Earth surface area)

 Shape (Local angles are shown correctly)
 Direction (All directions are shown correctly relative to the center)
 Distance (Preserved along particular lines)
 Map projections can be constructed to preserve one or some of these

properties, though not all of them simultaneously.
 Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric

properties in different ways.
 The degree and kinds of distortion vary with the projection used. Some
projections are suited for mapping large areas that are mainly north-south in
extent , others for large areas that are mainly east-west in extent.
Classification
 B) Based on Intrinsic Property

• Property of Projection:
 Equidistant
 Conformal or Orthomorphic
 Equivalent or Equal area
• Generation:
 Geometric, Semi Geometric, Mathematical
Various Map Projections

Cylindrical Map Projections
 Cylindrical map projections are
made by projecting from the
globe onto the surface of an
enclosing cylinder, and then
unwrapping the cylinder to
make a flat surface
• Mercator
• Transverse Mercator
Mercator Projection
 Cylindrical, Conformal
 Meridians are equally spaced straight lines
 Parallels are unequally spaced straight lines
 Scale is true along the equator
 Great distortion of area in polar region
 Used for navigation
REGULAR CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION: THE MERCATOR

Transverse Mercator Projection

 Cylindrical (Transverse)
 Conformal
 Central meridian and equator are straight lines
 Other meridians and parallels are complex curves
 For areas with larger north-south extent than east-west extent
TRANSVERSE CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION: THE TRANSVERSE MERCATOR

Conic Projections
 For a conic projection, the projection surface is
cone shaped
 Locations are projected onto the surface of the

cone which is then unwrapped and laid flat
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

 Conical, Conformal
 Parallels are concentric arcs
 Meridians are straight lines cutting parallels at right angles.
 Scale is true along two standard parallels, normally, or along just one.
 It projects a great circle as a straight line
 Used for maps of countries and regions with predominant east west expanse
 Used for plane coordinate system in USA

30
Standard Parallels
1 Standard 2 Standard
Parallel Parallels
LCC PROJECTION
Polyconic Projection
 In this projection all parallels are projected without any distortion
 Scale is exact along each parallel and central meridian
 Parallels are arcs of circles but are not concentric.
 It is neither conformal nor equal area.
 Central meridian and equator are straight lines; all other meridians are curves.
 Central Meridian cuts all parallels at 90 degrees
 Free of distortion only along the central meridian.
 Used in India for all topographical mapping on 1:250,000 and larger scales.
Three partial equidistant conic maps, each based on a different standard parallel,
therefore wrapped on a different tangent cone (shown on the right with a quarter
removed plus tangency parallels). When the number of cones increases to infinity,
each strip infinitesimally narrow, the result is a continuous polyconic projection
Azimuthal Projections
 For an azimuthal, or planar projection, locations are projected forward onto a flat plane.
 The normal aspect for these projections is the North or South Pole.
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS)

 Defined above 84 degrees north latitude and below 80 degree south
 Conformal
 Meridians are straight lines
 Parallels are circles
 Used in conformal mapping of polar regions

Grids
 Rectangular grids have been developed for the use of Surveyors.
 Each point can be designated merely by its (x , y) co-ordinates.
 Grid systems are normally divided into zones so that distortion and variation of scale
within any one zone are kept small.
 The UTM grid
False Northing and False Easting

 Calculating coordinates is easier if negative number are n’t involved.
 Example : Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates
 Expressed in coordinate units, not degrees.

Central Meridian
Natural Origin
Central Parallel
False False Easting

Northing
Coordinate
System Origin
SPECIFYING AN ORIGIN SHIFT:

THE FALSE EASTING AND FALSE NORTHING
Universal
Transverse
Mercator (UTM)
• Particular case of
Transverse Mercator
Projection.
• The earth between

latitudes 84 N and
80 S, is divided into
60, 6 wide areas
• Latitude origin – the

equator
Choosing a map Projection

• The choice of map projection is made to give the most accurate possible representation of
the geographic information, given that some distortion is inevitable. The choice depends on:
 The location
 Shape
 Size of the region to be mapped
 The theme or purpose of the map

Projection Parameters
 To define the coordinate system completely, it is not sufficient simply to name

the kind of projection used, it is also necessary to specify the projection
parameters.
 It is important to know the Projection and Projection Parameters used in map /

imageries.
 Sometimes it is required to superimpose one map or image on another map. If

map and Imagery have different projection parameters, the details will not match
if they are superimposed.
 The set of parameters required depends on the kind of projection.

Projection Parameters contd.

 The central meridian of the projection for cylindrical, where it touches
the ellipsoid surface.
 The standard parallel(s) for conic projections.
 The false easting and false northing
 The units
 Reference System / Ellipsoid

New Mapping Policy
 Open Series Maps

 Defense Series Maps
 Switchover from Everest coordinate system to Geocentric coordinate system,
ITRF, GRS 80 etc
 OSM Series
 Polyconic / Everest UTM/WGS-84
 DSM Series
 Polyconic / Everest LCC/WGS-84
Conclusions
 We need to project geospatial data for any analysis
 Make it possible to use data from different sources
 Several projections to choose from
 Projections inevitably distorts at least one property
 Can choose suitable map projection
 Can control Scale Error

Contact Details:
Email- asrivastava@iirs.gov.in
Spatial Analysis –
Introductory Concepts and
Overview
Prabhakar Alok Verma
Scientist/ Engineer – ‘SD’
prabhakar@iirs.gov.in
1
6/23/2020
Learning Objective
 To understand concepts of spatial data retrieval,

classification & measurement operations
Learning Outcome
At the end of the lecture you should be able to

answer the following…..
 What is spatial data analysis?
 Importance of spatial data analysis
 Components of spatial data analysis
 Types of spatial data operations
 Steps to perform spatial data analysis
 Tools to perform spatial data analysis
Brain Storming
 Distance of nearest hospital?
 Route to the nearest hospital?
 Nearest school which is 100 meters away from major road?
 How to make landslide hazard zones?
 Suitable places to establish a textile industry?
 Find out the suitable sites to construct a High School in Dehradun City
based on the following criteria.
 At a distance of more than 1.5 Kilometres from existing schools
 At a distance between 500 and 1000 metres of the main roads (to
minimize traffic noise pollution, but still to have proper access)
 Not in use by
 Businesses (business areas)
 Forest (forest areas)
What is spatial data analysis?
 Spatial analysis is the process of extracting

information from spatial data, based on
requirement
 This analysis could be:
 Performing spatial queries
 Network analysis
 Creation of surface from point data
 Making predictions
Importance of spatial data analysis
 To get meaningful information from spatial data

Components of spatial data analysis
 Spatial data
 Computer with GIS capabilities
 Requirement
 Algorithm/ tool able to perform desired analysis
 Visualization
Types of spatial operations

(Analytical Functions of GIS)
 Classification of functions
 Measurements, retrieval and classification
 Overlay functions
 Neighborhood functions
 Connectivity functions
Measurement
 These functions allow geometry based

calculation like distances, length, area,
perimeter, centroid (vector, raster)
 E.g.
 Find average distance between points
 Find population density
 Geometric Measurements only

Continued…
 Distance between two points  Pythagorean distance function
 If one or both features are not a point minimal distance

Measurement - Raster
 Raster measurements
include: location, distance
and area size
 Location of an individual cell
 derived from anchor point
and resolution
 Area size  number of cells *
cell size
Cell size: 30 m X 30 m
 Distance  standard distance
900 * 5 = 4500 m2
function applied to the
locations of their mid-points
Continued…
 Location of individual cell is derived from anchor

point and resolution
 Cell’s location is defined by its midpoint
X=1554
Y=203538
Note: Resolution=20x20 m
X=?; Y=?
Retrieval
 Facilitates searching of the data.

 Can be based on:
 Attribute values
 Location
 E.g. find all the cities having population more

than 0.1 million
 E.g. find length of border of India
Spatial selection queries
 Interactive
 Spatial Selection by Attribute conditions
 Relational operators
 Logical operators
 Combining attribute conditions
 Spatial selection using topological relationships
 Selecting features that are inside selection objects
 Selecting features that intersect
 Selecting features adjacent to selection objects
 Selecting features based on their distance
Interactive
Spatial Selection by Attribute

conditions
 Define a selection condition on the features

attributes in a query language, such as SQL.
 Display the result both on the map and in the
attribute table.
Syntax – Relational operators

< (less than)
= (equals)
<= (less or equal than)
> (greater than)
>= (greater than or
equal)
<> (does not equal)
Field < Value

Area < 400,000
Syntax - Relational operator
Population < 7000

Syntax – logical operators
AND (returns true if both expressions a and b are true)

OR (returns true if one or both of the expressions a
and b is true)
NOT (returns true if expression is false)
Area < 400,000 (atomic condition)

(Area < 400,000) AND (landuse =Forest) (composite cond.)
(Area < 400,000) OR (landuse = Forest) (composite cond.)
NOT (landuse = Forest) (negate condition)
Combining attribute conditions
(Area > 100) AND (Population < 8000)

Combining attribute conditions
(Area > 100) OR (Population < 8000)

Negate Condition
NOT ‘Ward Name’ = ‘Rajpur’

Searching for NULL values
‘Ward Name’ is NULL
‘Ward Name’ is NOT NULL

Like Operator
 ‘Ward Name’ LIKE ‘Ra%’

 ‘Ward Name’ LIKE ‘%ra’
 ‘Ward Name’ LIKE ‘%ra%’
 Disjoint
 Meet
 Equal
 Inside
 Covered by
 Contains
 Covers
 Overlap
Disjoint
Geometries neither touch nor overlaps

Meet
 Geometries touch at the boundary but not from

the interior.
 Poly-poly
 Line-line
 Poly-line
 Poly-point
 Line-point
Questions
 Which of the following is not spatial analysis?

 Network analysis
 TIN Creation
 Spatial Query
 Attribute Query
 Which of the following is/are component/s of

spatial data analysis?
 Toposheet
 Selection criteria
 Visualisation
 All of the above
Questions
 Distance between two cells of a raster is?

 Minimum distance between those cells
 Maximum distance between the cells
 Distance between their mid points
 None of the above
 Which of the following wards will be selected by

‘Ward Name’ LIKE ‘Ra%’
 Rajpur
 rajpur
 kaRapur
 Pura
Questions
 Which of the following is correct about disjoint

relationship?
 Geometries neither touch nor overlaps
 Geometries touch at the boundary from outside
 Geometries are completely coincident
 Intersecting boundaries
 Which of the following is correct about meet
relationship?
 Geometries neither touch nor overlaps
 Geometries touch at the boundary from outside
 Geometries are completely coincident
 Intersecting boundaries
Overlap
 Intersecting boundaries
 Poly-poly
 Poly-line
 Line-line
Equal
 Geometries are completely coincident.
 Poly-poly
 Line-line
 Point-point
Inside
 Object B is inside Object A (Object B will be

selected) e.g. select all the schools inside a city.
 Poly-poly
 Poly-line
 Poly-point
Contains
 Object A completely contains object B (object A

will be selected)
 Select the city which contains IIRS
 Poly-poly
 Poly-line
 Poly-point
 Line-point
Covers
 Object A covers B (object A will be selected)

 E.g. select the city which covers IIRS
 The interior of an object is completely inside the
other object and the boundaries intersect.
 Poly-poly
 Poly-line
Covered by
 Object B is Covered by object A (object B will be

selected)
 Opposite of covers
 Poly-poly
 Poly-line
Selecting features that are inside

selected objects
1 3
2
Select all cities that are located in the state Georgia. (INSIDE RELATIONSHIP)
Selecting features that intersect
1 3
2
Select the highways that run (partly) through the state Georgia. First select the state Georgia, then select
all the highways that intersect the selected state. (OVERLAP)
Select features adjacent to selected

objects
Select all the states that are neighbors of the state Georgia. (MEET RELATIONSHIP)
Selecting features based on their

distance
Select all cities within a distance of 100 miles of Atlanta

Combining various selection techniques
Attribute Selection using Attribute

Selection Topological relationships Selection
Select hospitals in the Select all roads that are within a From the selected roads,
Building layer distance of 200 meters from the
Select the major roads
selection in the Building layer
Question: Select all major roads that are located within a distance of 200 meter from a hospital.
(Re) Classification
 Allows (re)assignment of features to a class

based on attribute value (vector data)
 (Re)Assignment of group of pixels to a class
based on pixel value (raster data)
Classification is a technique of purposefully removing detail from an input data

set in order to reveal patterns.
(Re) Classification
 Remove detail from an input dataset to reveal
important spatial patterns.
 Reduce the number of classes and eliminate
details.
 If the input dataset itself is the result of a
classification we call it a reclassification.
 Reclassify data in different systems or for
different purposes.
 Assign codes based on specific attributes.
(Re)Classification - procedure
Example:
 soil types reclassified into soil suitability for
agricultural purpose.
 House hold income classification:
 low
 below average
 average
 above average
 high.
Classification
 Classification - Reclassification
 Vector Classification with post processing
 User controlled classification
 Classification table
 Automatic classification
 Equal interval technique
 Equal frequency technique
User controlled
Automatic
 User specifies the number of output classes.

 Computer decides the
class break points.
 Equal frequency
 Equal interval etc.
(Re)Classification - merge
Five classes of house hold
Five classes of house hold income with original
income with original polygons in the same
polygons intact categories were merged
(boundary dissolved)
Differences between vector and raster data
Vector Raster
Geometric or No. Because only polygon (line, No. Because only pixel
topological change point) attributes are changed attributes are changed.
Post processing: Yes. For example, neighbour No.
Spatial merging, polygons with the same category
aggregation or are merged into one bigger
dissolve feature.
Email - prabhakar@iirs.gov.in
Tel - +91 1352524129
Geo-spatial Data Quality and Errors

(Uncertainty in GIS)
Dr. Harish Karnatak

Scientist and Head, GIT&DL Department
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO Dehradun, India
harish@iirs.gov.in
Why to study errors?
 GIS database model is an approximation of real world;

 Geographical data collected, entered and processed are
not sufficiently reliable and error free;
 The spatial database has problems because the real
world phenomena are not always discrete but also fuzzy
in nature.
Causes of errors in spatial data
 Measurement errors: accuracy (ex. altitude measurement or soil

samples, usually related to instruments);
 Computational errors: precision (ex. to what decimal point the

data is represented?);
 Human error: error in using instruments, selecting scale, location

of samples;
 Data model representation errors;
 Errors in derived data.

Basic concepts
 Error
 It encompasses both the imprecision of data and its
inaccuracies.
 Accuracy
 It is the degree to which information on a map or in a
digital database matches true or accepted values.
 Precision
 refers to the level of measurement and exactness of
description in a GIS database.
Basic concepts
 Data
 A collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn
 Quality
 Data quality refers to the state of qualitative or quantitative pieces of
information.
 data is generally considered as high quality if it is "fit for its intended uses
in operations, decision making and planning“.
Data Quality
 Quality is a function of intangible properties such as

completeness and consistency;
 Data are the result of a production process, and the manner in
which this process is performed clearly affects data quality.
Data quality components in GIS

Factors affecting reliability of GIS data
 Age of data – collected at different times

 Areal coverage
 Map scale and resolution
 Density of observations
 Data formats and exchanges in formats
 Accessibility
Precision and Accuracy

 Precision: How exactly a location is specified (the exactness of
the method used).
 Accuracy: How close it is to the true value (the exactness of
the result)
 GIS data are capable of more precision ‘double-precision’
 -> 6 decimal places 1234567.123456 (meters or square
meters)
 But this is not meaningful without highly accurate data
Types and sources of errors in GIS

1. Types of error: spatial or attributes
2. Sources of error:
1. instruments,
2. human,
3. change
3. The 'errors' that can occur during the four components of GIS:
1. Input
2. Database management
3. Data Analysis
4. Output
GIS processing errors

Input:
 Digitizing: human error and the width of a line
 Dangling nodes (connected to only one arc): permissible in arc themes
Topology is needed for GIS analysis
 [Topology = the spatial relationships between geographic features]

In-out :Digitizing errors
Topological errors in vector GIS
(a) Effects of tolerance on topological

cleaning
(b) Topological ambiguities in raster

to vector conversion
13

Database management
 Data precision: too little, too much
 Missing (null) values
 Metadata – how / when were data gathered etc..
 Units of measurement e.g. feet versus meters
Data analysis
 Interpolation of point data into lines / surfaces e.g. TIN / contours.
 Overlay of layers, digitized separately from different sources or scales, e.g.
soils and vegetation.
 They have common borders, but slight differences cause 'slivers'.
 The compounding effects of processing and analysis of multiple layers: for
example, if two layers each have correctness of 90%, the accuracy of the
resulting overlay is around 81%.
 Inappropriate or inadequate inputs for models
 Dubious classifications
Dubious analysis
Default class boundaries

Data units and bad classes

(density v numbers)
Map showing population density and protected area

Errors in data processing and analysis
 GIS operations that can introduce errors include the classification of data,
aggregation or disaggregation of area data and the integration of data using
overlay technique.
 Where a certain level of spatial resolution or a certain set of polygon

boundaries are required, data sets that are not mapped with these may need
to be aggregated or disaggregated to the required level.
Attribute error due to processing
 Attribute error result from positional error

(such as the missing ‘hole’ feature in map A
that is present as an island in map B). If one
of the two maps that overlaid contains an
error, then a classification error will result in
the composite map (polygon BA).
Project management and human error
 Measuring error
 Typos/drawing errors
 Incorrect implementation error
 Planning/coordination error
 Incorrect use of devices error
 Erroneous methodology error
 Other human errors
21
Geometry related errors
 Rounding errors
 Processing errors
 Geometric coordinate transformation
 Map scanning, geometric approximations
 Vector to fine raster errors
Controlling and Dealing with Errors
How errors can be controlled?

 Estimating degree of an error is an interesting area of GIS and
computational science.
Methods to deal with errors:
 Initial data: control quality of measurement, develop standards,
prevent human error.
 Data models: select correct data models based on experience or
model appropriateness, reduce errors during conversion from
one to another.
Finding and modeling errors in GIS
 Checking for errors

 Probably the simplest means of checking for data errors is by visual
inspection.
 Various statistical methods can be employed to help pinpoint potential
errors.
 Estimating degree of an error helps in controlling and correcting errors
Output Error
Scale bar, north arrow, mix legend ???

Summary of GIS errors
 Computer data have as many or more errors than printed maps
 The difference between accuracy and precision
 The effects of scale and generalization
 Lack of documentation - the need for metadata
 Age and date of GIS data (relative to rate of change)
 Effect of area jurisdictions - e.g provincial differences
 The challenge of a large province and country

Spatial Analysis- Functionality and Tools

Kapil Oberai
Scientist/Engineer SE, Geoinformatics Department
kapil@iirs.gov.in
Lecture Outline
 Review GIS Data Models
 What is Spatial Data Analysis?
 Broad Classification of analytical GIS capabilities
 Spatial Data Analysis: Vector Based Operations
 Spatial Data Analysis: Raster Based Operations
 Comparison of Vector and Raster-based Spatial Data Analysis
 Example- Site Suitability
2
GIS Data Model
Real World
600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 B G Trees
500
2 B G G
3 B
400
4 B G G Trees
Y-AXIS
5 B G G
300
6 B G BK House
7 B G 200
8 B B River
9 B 100
10 B 100 200 300 400 500 600

X-AXIS
Raster Representation Vector Representation 3

Spatial Data Analysis

 It can be defined as computing new information
that provides new insight from the existing
stored data.
Spatial Data
Analysis
Vector Raster
Based Based
4
History- Spatial Analysis is not new

 London cholera epidemic 1854
Soho
+ Cholera death
Water pump
5
Source: http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowcricketarticle.html
Broad Classification of analytical GIS capabilities

 Classification, retrieval and measurements
 All functions in this category are performed on a
single (vector or raster) data layer, often using the
associated attribute data.
 Overlay functions
 Combination of two or more spatial data layers.
 Neighborhood functions
 Evaluate the characteristics of an area surrounding the
features location
7
Overlay Operation
 Standard overlay operators
 take two input data layers;
 assume they are georeferenced in the same
system;
 overlap in study area.
 If either condition is not met, the use of an
overlay operator is senseless.
 The principle is to:
 compare the characteristics of the same
location in both data layers, and
 to produce a new output value for each
location. 8
Overlay Operations
 Vector (point, lines, polygons)
 Intersection
 Clip
 Union ….
 Raster
 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison and logical operators
 Conditional
9
Vector based analysis- Overlay

 General Principles of vector overlay
10
Vector based analysis Contd…

 Point-in-polygon overlay
 Line-in-polygon overlay
11

 Intersect
12
Source: ArcGIS Desktop Documentation (ESRI)

 Union
13

 Clip (Cookie Cutter)
14

 Erase
15
CLIP VS ERASE
 Clip extracts features inside the boundary
 Erase keeps features outside the boundary
16
Source: https://learngis.org/textbook/section-two-overlay-analysis

 Symmetrical Difference
 Dissolve
17
Satellite-based Disaster Affected Zone
18
Vector based analysis

 Buffering: also called proximity analysis is based on the
distance derived from certain selected features.
Multiple Ring Buffer 19

Raster based analysis

 Overlay operations – RASTER
 New cell values are calculated using map algebra
 Performed on cell-by-cell basis
 No geometric calculation
Output_raster_name = Raster_expression
20
Raster Operations
21
Local: Cell by Cell Operations

 Performed on Cell by cell basis
 Computes output cell values as a function
of the input cell values
 Can be done using single or multiple
raster's
 “No data" cells not included in calculations
 Common examples: overlays and
reclassification
22

 Overlay RASTER – Examples of arithmetic operator
23

 Overlay RASTER – Examples of logical expressions
24
Raster Operations Contd…

 Local
 Reclassification: is the process of reassigning a value, a
range of values, or a list of values in a raster to new output
values
25

 Local
 Reclassification
• Reclassification of continuous
data involves replacing a
range of values with a new
values.
• For example, a raster

depicting distance from roads
can be reclassified into three
distance zones.
Input continuous raster Reclassified raster
26
Source: http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/GTECH361/lectures/lecture11/concepts/Reclassifying%20raster%20data.htm

 Local
 Reclassification
• Reclassification of categorical
data involves replacing
individual values with new
values.
• For example, land use values
can be reclassified into
preference values of low (1),
medium (2), and high (3).
Input discrete raster Reclassified raster • Land use values not desired in
the analysis are given values
of NoData.
27
Source: http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/GTECH361/lectures/lecture11/concepts/Reclassifying%20raster%20data.htm
Focal (Neighbourhood) Operation

 Value of the output cell determined by the cells in a
specified neighbourhood around each input cell
• Focal Statistics: calculating a Sum statistic,
consider the processing cell with a value of 5 in
the diagram.
• A rectangular 3 by 3 cell neighbourhood shape is
specified.
• The sum of the values of the neighbouring cells
(3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 4 = 19) plus the value
of the processing cell (5) equals 24 (19 + 5 =
24).
• So a value of 24 is given to the cell in the output
raster
Source: http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/tools/spatial-analyst-toolbox/how-focal-statistics-works.htm 28

 Zonal
29
Outputs of Zonal Operations
• Raster layer
• All the cells within a zone have the
same value on the output raster
layer
• Table
• Each row in the table contains the
statistics for a zone.
• The first column is the value (or
ID) of each zone.
• The table can be joined back to the
zone layer.


 Global
Euclidean distance:
Operations assign to each
cell in the output raster
dataset its distance from the
closest source cell.
31
Quiz
1) Dissolve operations requires two input layers d) Global
a) True
b) False 4) Euclidean distance is an example of ________
operation in GIS
2)Re-classification is an example of_______
operation in GIS a) Local
a) Local b) Focal
b) Focal c) Zonal
c) Zonal d) Global
d) Global
3) Computing NDVI is an example of _________ 5) Erase Operation keeps features outside the
operation in GIS. boundary
a) Local a) True
b) Focal b) False
c) Zonal 32
Quiz
1) Dissolve operations requires two input layers d) Global
a) True
b) False 4) Euclidean distance is an example of ________
operation in GIS
2)Re-classification is an example of_______
operation in GIS a) Local
a) Local b) Focal
b) Focal c) Zonal
c) Zonal d) Global
d) Global
3) Computing NDVI is an example of _________ 5) Erase Operation keeps features outside the
operation in GIS. boundary
a) Local a) True
b) Focal b) False
c) Zonal 33
Terrain Analysis
Slope: Aspect: Contours:


 Map Query Examples
 Single layer numeric example: elevation > 2000 ft.
35

 Map Query Examples
 Single layer numeric example: elevation > 2000 ft.
 Results in a binary True/False layer
36
COMPARISON OF VECTOR AND RASTER-BASED DATA ANALYSIS

 Vector and raster data analysis are the two basic types of GIS analysis.
 Treated separately because
 GIS software cannot run them together in the same operation.
 GIS software provide tools to convert vector to raster data and vice-versa.
 GIS software allow use of vector data in some raster data operations (e.g.,
extraction operations)
 the data are converted into raster data before the operation starts.
 Each GIS project is different in terms of data sources and objectives.
 Therefore choose the type of data analysis that is efficient and appropriate.
 depends on the data availability and its format, GIS Software, data complexity and
efficiency
37

 Lets consider difference using two popular operations: overlay and buffering.
 Overlay: local operation with multiple raster's is often compared to vector overlay
operation.
 Differences exist between them:
 vector-based overlay must compute intersections between features and insert points
at the intersections.
 not necessary for raster-based local operation; input have same cell size and extent.
 Computation is less complicated than calculating line intersections; even if resampled
 raster-based local operation has access to various tools and operators to create the
output whereas a vector-based overlay only combines attributes from input layers.
 Any computations with the attributes must follow the overlay operation.
 So, raster-based overlay is often preferred for projects that involve large number of
layers and a considerable amount of computation.
 However an vector overlay operation has advantages that it can combine multiple
attributes from each input layer.
 Once combined, all attributes can be queried and analyzed individually or in
combination unlike raster operation- one raster for each attribute
38

 Buffering: Vector-based buffering and raster physical distance
measure operation are similar; both measure distances from select features
 But they differ in following aspects:
 buffering uses (X,Y) coordinates in measuring distances;
 raster-based operation uses cells in measuring physical distances.
 buffering can create more accurate buffer zones than a raster-based operation.
 accuracy difference can be important, e.g. implementing riparian zone management programs.
 Second, buffering operation is more flexible- create multiple rings (buffer zones), whereas a
raster-based operation creates continuous distance measures.
 Additional data processing (Reclassification) is required to define buffer zones from
continuous distance measures.
 buffering operation has option of creating separate buffer zones for each select feature or
a dissolved buffer zone for all select features.
 difficult to create and manipulate separate distance measures using a raster-based
operation.
39
Site Selection/Suitability
40
Site suitability analysis for construction of school

Problem: Select suitable sites for construction of a new school
(Intermediate School) considering following criteria:
1. The school should be 1km away from existing Inter colleges.
2. School should be at least 1 km away from major roads to avoid accidents
however for convenience of transportation, it should be within 2 km range.
3. To gather a good number of students and to avoid construction of school in
congested areas following preference is given to residential areas:
a. Medium density residential area: 1st preference
b. Minimum and High density areas: 2nd preference
c. Highest density residential area: 3rd preference.
41
42
1. The school should be 1000 meters away from existing Inter colleges.
43

44
3.To find out the area which satisfies third criteria of residential density,
we need to select only medium density areas which are highly suitable
45
Site suitability analysis for construction of school
To select suitable sites for construction of a new school (Intermediate

School) considering following criteria:
1. The school should be 1000 meters away from existing Inter
colleges.
3. To gather a good number of students and to avoid construction
of school in congested areas following preference is given to
residential areas:
a. Medium density residential area: 1st preference
b. Minimum and High density areas: 2nd preference
c. Highest density residential area: 3rd preference.
46
To select the sites which satisfy 1st and 3rd criteria, the Inter College buffer
area need to be removed from selected residential area (medium density)
47
Finally to select the areas which also satisfy road (second) criteria, overlay
operation is used
48
Final Result
49
Email- Kapil@iirs.gov.in
Tel-01352524128
50
Concept of Online GIS –An Introduction

to Geoweb Services
Dr. Harish Karnatak

Head & Scientist SF
Geoweb Services, IT & Distance Learning Department
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), ISRO Dehradun
harish@iirs.gov.in
Internet Technology
 The origins of the Internet reach back to research of the 1960s,
commissioned by the United States government to build robust,
fault-tolerant, and distributed computer networks.
 The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science

Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other
commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the
development of new networking technologies, and the merger of
many networks.
 The commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international

network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually
every aspect of modern human life.
Internet users
 As of March 2020, more than ~4.5 billion people—over a
third of the world's human population—have used the
services of the Internet
(http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm)
Knowledge Base for GIS

Computer Application Area:
Science/MIS public admin.
graphics planning
visualization geology
database mineral exploration
system forestry
GIS site selection
administration
security marketing
civil engineering
criminal justice
surveying
Geography
and related:
cartography
geodesy
photogrammetry
landforms
spatial statistics.
The convergence of technological fields and

traditional disciplines.
GIS System Architecture and Components
External and
Internal data
Data Management; Model Management; Major Components
Spatial & Non- Spatial model & Non-
spatial data spatial model • Database Server-
Attribute
Database
data Knowledge Management
Management
• Application server-
Application
Dialog Management; Attribute software
base query and report; Spatial
Spatial query and spatial output • Hardware
data
Decision maker
Information system
Network Based Geo-Information Services
Web/application server Web users
User 1
GIS Server Request User 2
User 3
User 4
Response User n
Data Gateway Web clients

Client end
Network Based Geo-Information Services
Data Server
Web browser Request

W
E
Application Server
B
GIS/Map Server
Response
E
Thick client
R
V
E
r
Other web client

Fig.-11.4. Typical architecture for Internet base geo-spatial data access
Full GIS Servers are Emerging

Providing Centralized GIS Services
Standard Web
• Standards-Based
Open Services • Cross-Platform
Platform • IT Focused
GIS Server
Mapping - Data Geoprocessing Catalog

Editing
Visualization Services Services Services
Geo-RDBMS
XML Standards
Distributed Computing
Centralized & Distributed GIS Development and Processing

Web 2.0 and GIS
 Web 2.0 is referred as an interactive web

application with public participation which allows
participatory information sharing,
interoperability, user-centered design, and
collaboration on the World Wide Web.
 The integration of web 2.0 with GIS data

application is known as GeoWeb 2.0.
Web 2.0 and GIS

Web as Participati Content Web …..……
services …
Conceptual &
platform on syndication social
Web 2.0
XML RSS JavaScript AJAX … Technical
Web 2.0 can be realized by combining several web

computing technologies such as AJAX, Open API, REST,
XML, XHTML/CSS, RSS/GeoRSS and other related
technologies.
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA)

Service Broker
Service Provider
Service Consumer
Interact
Service
Client
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) for GIS

Differences between a Website & Web Services
Web Services
Websites
NOT websites
Provide HTML pages and Operations that can be
forms for human users to called to return
navigate and perform information
functions Invoked automatically
 Searching, Shopping, through a program
Interaction
Publicly available and
Front end user interfaces standardized for use by
through the browser all programmers
Example: www.google.com Example: ?
Web GIS Server Components

Database Server:
The database server may have a file based system or Relational
Database Management System (RDBMS) based or a combination
of files and RDBMS
GIS or Map Server:
Map server or GIS server is a software package or program, which
is responsible for rendering the GIS data into web browser
Application Server:
An application server is a software which provides customized
software applications.
Web Server:
A web server is a computer program which uses the client/server
model and the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), serves the files that form web pages to web users
The Open Geospatial Consortium

Vision:
Develops standards for
geospatial web services
Mission:
A world in which everyone
benefits from geographic
information and services
made available across any
network, application, or
platform
Types of Web Service Specifications for GIS

 Catalogue Services (Examples- CS Core,CS-W ebRIM, CS-W
19115/19119 and CS-W ebRIM for EO)
 Processing Services (Examples- Sensor Planning Service

(SPS), and Web Processing Service (WPS), Coordinate
Transformation Service (CTS and Web Coverage Processing Service
(WCPS)).
 Encoding ( Examples- Geography Markup Language (GML),

CityGML, GML Simple Features, Filter Encoding (FE), GML in JPEG
2000, KML, Observations & Measurements (O&M), Sensor Model
Language (SensorML), Symbology Encoding (SE), Styled Layer
Descriptor (SLD), SWE Common, Transducer Markup Language
(TML).
Types of Web Service Specifications for GIS
 Data Services (Examples- Simple Features Specification (SFS),

Web Coverage Service (WCS), WCS Transactional, Sensor
Observation Service (SOS), Table Join Service (TJS) and Web
Feature Service (WFS).
 Portrayal Service (Examples-Web Map Service (WMS) and

Web Map Tiling Service)
 Other Services (Examples- GeoXACML, GeoRSS, Geospatial

Objects, OWS Common)
3D algorithms and visualization- 3D in Web
Virtual reality in Web GIS

environment is emerging…
Applications of Web and Distributed GIS, Harish Karnatak

Collaborative mapping and data services

 Collaborative mapping and crowdsourcing are two methods of
generating content on the internet, which involves contributions
from a large, disparate group of individuals.
 These methods rely upon web applications that allow people to

upload information easily and allow many others to view and react
to this information. Such web applications are often considered part
of Web 2.0 or Geoweb 2.0.
 There are several tools available which allow users to create and
edit web content, such as tagging tools, wiki software
(Wikipedia), and web-based spatial data editors (e.g., Google Map
Maker, OpenLayers, Bhuvan Collaborative tool etc).

Collaborative mapping and data services

Openstreet Maps- A typical example- http://www.openstreetmap.org/
National Spatial Data Infrastructure

 In order to more effectively share geodata, organisations may need
to develop and institutionalize a Spatial Data Infrastructure.
 An SDI is a coordinated series of agreements on technology

standards, institutional arrangements, and policies that enable the
discovery and use of geospatial information by users and for
purposes other than those it was created for.
 SDIs facilitate the discovery and integrated use of geo-information

across organisations in a standardized way.
 They are built at local, national, regional and global scales.

National Spatial Data Infrastructure
Gateway Clearing house server
Central Govt. organization
users
State Govt. organization
Universities/ Academia
NGOs
Others
Web user interface One gateway using standard Metadata from Organizations
protocols
Some of the GeoWeb Applications

Indian Space Science Data Center

From the day of the launch payload data is always made available to
the payload scientists. As per policy guidelines and peer-review
requirements, data is made accessible to public at large, subsequently
Gateway to Indian EO Data Products & Services

Project Specific
Visualisation Data Archive Thematic Services Geo-Processing
Background What is Unique in Bhuvan?

 Availability of Seamless High Resolution Data
Bhuvan is an initiative of Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), Department of Space,  Multi-Sensor, Temporal, Resolution Data from
IRS Satellites
Government of India to showcase Indian Earth
Observation capabilities from IRS series of  Rich Thematic Information
satellites.  Weather Data from ISRO AWS
To evince the distinctiveness of Indian Earth  Ocean Services
Observation capabilities through
 Collaboration / Sharing / Community
online rendering of multi-resolution, multi- Participation
temporal and multi-sensor IRS imagery
 Urban Design Tools
overlaying value added thematic maps on 2D/3D
globe whilst serving for societal good.  3D Fly Through
• EO Data/ Products Exceeds 18 Terrabytes  Multi-Lingual (English | Hindi | Tamil | Telugu )
• 19000 Unique users / month  Data Download (CartoDEM, AWiFS , LISS III,
• > 80000 image downloads since Sep 2011 Geophy. Prod.)
NRSC Open EO Data Archive

http://bhuvan-noeda.nrsc.gov.in
A new initiative to facilitate the users to select, browse and
download IRS satellite data products. Data Downloads (thousand)
 Cartosat-1:DEM: 1 arc Sec  CartoDEM – 6 Released on
29 Sep 2011
 Resourcesat-1:AWiFS Ortho (2008,2009):56m  AWiFS Ortho – 2
Released on
 Resourcesat-1:LISS III Ortho (2008-09):24m  LISS III Ortho – 5
02 Jan 2012
 Metadata NSDI 2.0

 Select Area based on ‘Bounding box, Mapsheet(SOI), Tiles, Interactive – 13
TotalDrawing’ (till 05
Feb’12)
This facility will be

extended for other IRS
satellite data coarser
than 24m in near
future.
NRSC Open EO Data Archive (NOEDA)

Web GUI for NOEDA Map sheet based search and download for
Carto DEM
AOI based search, metadata display and data download Tile based search and download for AWiFS data
Thematic Services
Bhuvan-Thematic Services facilitate the users to select,
browse and query the Thematic Datasets from this portal.
Users can also consume these Thematic Datasets and
integrate into their systems as ‘OGC Web Services’.
 Land Use Land Cover, NUIS, SIS-DP
 Flood (Annual and Hazard Layer) http://bhuvan-noeda.nrsc.gov.in/theme
 Land Degradation “OGC Web Services (WMS, WMTS) towards interoperabil
Bhuvan Thematic Services
Bhuvan thematic services Loading of state level thematic data
AOI based statistical analysis District level map composition

National Biodiversity Information System

https://bis.iirs.gov.in
National Data Repository
for online data analysis,
data sharing and
dissemination of BCLL
National Biodiversity Information System
Free Data download facility

Indian Bio-resource Information Network

(IBIN)- http://ibin.gov.in
 Indian Bioresource Information Network (IBIN) is being
developed as a distributed national infrastructure to
serve relevant information on diverse range of issues of
bioresources of the country to a range of end users.
 Its major goal is to network and promote an open
ended, co-evolutionary growth among all the digital
databases related to biological resources of the country
and to add value to the databases by integration.
 IBIN is designed to serve relevant information on
bioresources of the country to the professionals involved
in bio-prospecting, marketing, protecting bio-piracy and
the conservation of bioresources.
Indian Bio-resource Information Network

(IBIN) http://ibin.gov.in
Availibity of bio-resource data

from distributed systems and
online data search utility with
geo-locations on dynamic maps
India-Wris
 The project “Generation of Database and Implementation of Web

Enabled Water Resources Information System in the Country” short
named as India-WRIS WebGIS is a joint venture of the Central
Water Commission (CWC), Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of
India and Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Department
of Space, Govt. of India
 India-WRIS WebGIS aims as a ‘Single Window’ solution for

comprehensive, authoritative and consistent data & information of
India’s water resources along with allied natural resources in a
standardized national GIS framework
India-Wris

25-June-2020
Demonstration on QGIS
- Basic GIS operations
and analysis
FOSS4G
Prasun Kumar Gupta
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (ISRO)
prasun@iirs.gov.in
Online Certificate Course on “Remote Sensing & GIS Technology and

Applications” for University Teachers & Government Officials
(June 13 -July 01, 2020)
Size of GIS Industry
“With an estimated market size approximating US$ 300
billion, the geospatial industry is likely to grow between 15
to 20% CAGR over the next few years…”
(Source: Geospatial Industry

Outlook & Readiness Index, 2018)
Open Source is the right choice
• Free ($0) “free speech” ≠ “free lunch”
• Control & Flexibility
• Quality (more eyes, more contributors)
• Privacy, Security & Innovation
Freedom to*: APACHE
• to run the program,

• to study and change the program’s source code,
• to redistribute exact copies, and
• to distribute modified versions
* as specified in the GNU project philosophy
Free & Open Source software
for Geoinformatics (FOSS4G)
• Desktop GIS: QGIS, JUMP, ILWIS, μDIG, SAGA,
(for expert users) GRASS-GIS, OSSIM
• Spatial databases: MySQL, PostGIS
• Code library: GDAL, GeoTools, Proj
• Web mapping: GeoServer, GeoExt, OpenLayers
• Data visualization: GeoDa, grADS
• Spatial catalogue: GeoNetwork
S. Steiniger & E. Bocher (2009) An overview on current free and open source
desktop GIS developments, IJGIS, 23:10, DOI: 10.1080/13658810802634956
FOSS based data collection
Intuitive mobile apps with
different data types
Get the data in real-time!
Visualize
• Bar Graph
• Pie Chart
• Map
IIRS app:
QRealTime
Other apps:
GeoODK
InputApp.io
Possible Application Areas
• Completing surveys about households
• Crisis mapper tasked to capture images and
locations of damaged areas
• Collecting multimedia data - audio, video
• Baseline surveys and project evaluations for
collecting both quantitative and qualitative
data
Success Stories
• MAp the Neighbourhood in Uttarakhand
(MANU), for damage assessment post
Uttarakhand disaster’ 2013
• Geotagging the post offices of India
• Monitoring of watershed under IWMP for
change detection
• Digitisation of assets of NYKS under Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Sports, Govt. of India
Crowdsourced data visualization
ProfileName: Damage to Buildings ProfileName: Damage to Roads ProfileName: Damage to Bridges

No. of Points Collected: ~1000 No. of Points Collected: ~460 No. of Points Collected: ~50
Common Misconceptions
• Not suitable for cartography
• Outputs not accepted in Journals/Thesis
• No support, Not safe, Not stable
• May stop working any day
• You data & maps become open/public
• Prone to vandalism
• Not for professionals
• Made in basements & garages
• Requires programming language
• Outputs will not open in other software
• Cannot use open source as you are a
commercial company / enterprise
• Cannot sell outputs prepared in open source
live.osgeo.org
osgeolive-iso: 4.0 GB / osgeolive-vm: 3.1 GB

All softwares pre-installed with sample data and tutorials in Ubuntu OS;
available as a bootable image (DVD, thumb drive) or in a virtual machine.
www.osgeo.org/resources
Recommended resources
to learn QGIS
• QGIS Tutorials, Ujaval Gandhi

• www.qgistutorials.com/
• Spoken tutorial, IIT Bombay

• https://spoken-tutorial.org/
Link to my videos and data
https://bit.ly/qgis-iirs
prasun@iirs.gov.in
27-06-2020
Geospatial Application to Natural Hazards

and Disasters Risk Management
Role of Space Technology
Dr. Arijit Roy

Disaster Management Studies Department
Natural Disaster: How risky is our world ?
Expected future disaster losses

annualized over the long term
1
27-06-2020
Disaster Risk Management Framework

Derived from Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015
Governance and
Organizational Coordination and
Cooperation
Risk Identification Risk Reduction Risk Transfer
Historical hazard data, PREPAREDNESS: CAT insurance

analysis and changing early warning systems,
emergency planning and CAT bonds
hazard trends
response capacities Alternative Risk Transfer
Exposed assets &
MITIGATION AND mechanisms
vulnerability
PREVENTION: Other emerging products
Risk quantification Medium to long term sectoral
planning (e.g. building resilient
infrastructure)
Information and Knowledge Sharing

Education and training
SENDAI FRAMEWORK
Expected Outcome
Aims to achieve a substantial

reduction of disaster risk and
losses in lives, livelihoods and
health and in the economic,
physical, social, cultural and
environmental assets of
persons, businesses,
communities and countries
over the next 15 years.
Goals
Prevent new and reduce existing
disaster risk through the
implementation of integrated and
inclusive economic, structural,
legal, social, health, cultural,
educational, environmental,
technological, political and
institutional measures that prevent
and reduce hazard exposure and
vulnerability to disaster, increase
preparedness for response and
recovery, and thus strengthen
resilience
2
27-06-2020
Space technology In Disaster Management

Information for
Decision
Observation for
Information Satellite based location
service
Satellite
Communication
Earth Observation Satellites Infrastructure
LAND & WATER HIGH RESOLUTION OCEAN WEATHER; CLIMATE
CARTOSAT-2s OCEANSAT-2 INSAT-

RESOURCESAT-2/2A
3D/3DR
KALPANA
RISAT- 2B
SARAL, ScatSat INSAT-3A

RISAT-2 CARTOSAT-1
1 KM IMAGING CAPABILITY 0.8 M
to be augmented with CARTOSAT 2/3 series; RESEOURCESAT 3series;

GISAT, HRSAT, RISAT-1A/2A, OceanSat, NISAR......
3
27-06-2020
Space Observations
Natural Disasters in India
 India is vulnerable to a wide range of natural hazards, particularly flooding, cyclones,

drought, extreme heat waves, landslides, wildfire, and earthquakes.
 Studies show that, as a result of climate change, the intensity, duration and frequency of
weather-related shocks are likely to increase.
4
27-06-2020
Monitoring of Disaster
Role of Geospatial Technology
Temporal observation Scientific Model and forecasting

and patterns understanding & process
F
F F F
F F
F SF
F Fr
Fr
Geological Disaster
Earthquake
Observation and Monitoring fore warning and risk analysis
Global Plate
Motions
responsible for
major
InSAR for detection of subsidence earthquakes in
the world
Mapping of geomorphic Thermal

elements Anomaly
TEC anomaly and earthquake events
5
27-06-2020
Geological Disaster
Landslide
RISK ASSESMENT
Hydro-meteorological Disaster
Flood
Observation and Monitoring Early warning and risk analysis
Flood hazard zonation
6
27-06-2020
Extreme Weather Events and Flash Flood
Cloud Burst/EREs Flash Flood
 High frequency of extreme rainfall events

(EREs) are observed over region with <3000
meter elevation.
 Uttarakhand experiences higher number of
extreme rainfall events than Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
 Kangra, Hamirpur, Sirmaur, Nainital, Udham
Singh Nagar and Champawat districts are
highly prone to extreme rainfall events
Bharti & Singh et. al. (2016)
Drought

Standardised Precipitation Index
(SPI)
Rainfall; Soil Moisture;

Crop demand
(depends on weather,
genetics, stage &
physics & biology of
soil underneath)
Meteorological: departure from long-term average of

rainfall
Agricultural: inadequate soil moisture & rainfall
Hydrological: water shortage due to imbalance between
SW & GW
7
27-06-2020
Coastal Disaster
Tsunami
Destruction near Indira Point, Nicobar
Trinkat
Island
A&N
Tsunami Early warning system at INCOIS
Coastal Disaster
Sea Level Rise and Storm Surge
8
27-06-2020
Coastal Disaster
Cyclones
Observation and Monitoring Fore warning and risk analysis
 Cyclone tracking and landfall

 Wind speed and associated rainfall
 Damage Assessment
Human Health and Disease Surveillance
Malaria Map of India
COVID 19 status
GI Cases
9
27-06-2020
Environmental Disaster
Heat Wave
Forest Fire

Active Fire Detection
https://bis.iirs.gov.in:8443/fire/composer
Burnt Area Estimation
10
27-06-2020
Atmospheric Pollution and Dust Storm
Black Carbon Emissions
Courtesy: Dr. Prakash Chauhan

6-hour Forecast of Dust PM10
valid on 25 July 2019 11:30 AM
Crop residue burning
Industrial Hazard and Disaster
Identification of gas leaks in Pipelines
Oil Spills
Slag dumps of Bhilai

Industrial Hazards
Fire in Hazardous waste dumps
11
27-06-2020
Recap and Questions
1. What are the aspects which can be addressed through Remote Sensing
in NHDRM?
2. In case of floods how can you take care of the cloud cover?
3. Will climate change exacerbated the intensity and frequency of natural

disasters? Which types of disaster will be influenced by climate
change?
12
27-06-2020
Cyclone Ockhi: 2017

70 fishermen lost lives in Kerala
• Fishermen can now be alerted about natural

disasters and position of the International Maritime
Boundary Line while they are at the sea using the
NaVIC system.
• There is no mobile network coverage in deep seas.

The gadget that is to be mounted to the device will
have a Bluetooth connectivity and through NaVIC
messaging feature, information on prospective
storms will be given. Bluetooth will be connected to
mobile phone that will display messages.
DMS Communication Network

Present DMS Network
 DVB-S / MF-TDMA technology and
STAR Configuration
 4.5m Primary Nodes/HUB (Fixed) and

1.8m User Terminal
 Fwd Link : 10 Mbps ; Ret. Link:

825/2500 Kbps
 Total Network Capacity of 500 User

Terminal
 Present Deployment : 33 users Nodes

& 9 Primary Nodes
• A satellite based Virtual Private Communication Network (VPN) for Disaster Management
support to interconnect different user nodes through the main hub.
• Consists of one hub station at MHA, New Delhi, primary nodes and user nodes spread all
over the country.
• Capable of providing voice, data and video traffic between any two nodes.
13
27-06-2020
Crowd Sourcing: Chennai Floods 2015
Crowd Sourcing: Kedarnath Floods 2013

“Trained : 150 Students of 3 University ; On Field : 30 Teams of 3 each”
14
27-06-2020
National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM)
Salient Features of NDEM

The geoportal is equipped with comprehensive geo-spatial database for visualization, analysis &
decision making, integrated mobile app for field data transmission. The important features are
15
27-06-2020
Decision Support Tools & Capacity Building

Proximity Tool: Proximity tool for identifying Network Analysis Tool: Network analysis facilitates the
emergency facilities. user to find out the shortest route.
Add user specific data Tool: The tool allows users Multi Layer Analysis Tool: Enables the user to add
to add specific custom data in GIS format. multiple layers for analyzing the features for effective
decision making.
Uploaded layer
For creating awareness and better utilization of NDEM

products and services by NDEM users, regional training
programmes are conducted twice at 6 locations across the
country.
About 210 State/Central department officials were
trained in these training programs.
“The Application of Geoinformatics is limited only by the

imagination of those who use it”
Thank you
16
27-06-2020
Satellite Communication
Telemedicine
 In a major effort to improve emergency medical support to soldiers posted in high-
altitude areas, especially Siachen, the Integrated Defence Staff of the Defence Ministry
and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) signed a memorandum of
understanding to set up telemedicine nodes in critical places across the country.
 During winter months, many of remote

posts are cut off for several months
because of adverse terrain & extreme
weather, making emergency
evacuation near impossible.
 ISRO telemedicine facility connects

remote District Hospitals/Health
Centres with Super Specialty
Hospitals in cities, through INSAT
Satellites for providing expert
consultation.
17
RS and GIS Applications
in Forest Resources & Ecosystem Analysis
Dr. Hitendra Padalia

Sci./Eng. SF and Head,
Forestry & Ecology Department
Content
• Background
• Forest Resources-
Phytodiversity and Biomass Assessment
• Ecological Analysis-
Habitat Fragmentation, Fire, Invasive and Carbon Fluxes
• Summary
Forest Ecosystem Studies with Geospatial Technologies
• Synoptic coverage • Location information

• Systematic revisit • Navigation
• See things invisible to humans • Time information
• Multiple scale observations • Communication
• Cost effective • Observations
• Visualization, archival, retrieval and analysis data

• Linking of spatial to non-spatial data
• Integrated analysis
Periodic Assessment of Forest Cover
• Indian State of Forest Report
• Biennial report
• At 1:50,000 scale
• 15 cycle competed
• Forest loss/gain
• Estimate of TOFs
• Forest density change

(indicate degradation &
improvement)
• Forest growing stock/carbon

Biodiversity Characterization at Landscape Level Project
(1997-2012)
Forest/Vegetation Ancillary Data Field sampling Digital Elevation

Type Map (SOI Toposheets) Model
(IRS LISS-III data)
Road/ Settlement Ecosystem Uniqueness,

Species Richness,
Biodiversity Value
Forest/ Non- Proximity Analysis
Forest Map
Porosity,
Fragmentation Interspersion,
Juxtaposition
SPLAM Terrain Complexity
(Spatial Landscape Modeling)
Disturbance Index
Biological Richness
Forest Biomass/Carbon Stock Mapping
Medium resolution biomass/carbon stock mapping High resolution biomass/carbon stock mapping
Forest Carbon Density Individual tree

Baseline year: 2010 crown delineation
on VHR satellite
image
ISRO-GBP National Carbon Project

Forest Biomass Assessment using Radar Remote Sensing
AGB t/ha NISAR Satellite (L & S band) Biomass Satellite (P band)

Terai forest plantation
AGB from ALOS-2 PALSAR

RMSE= 35.00 tons/ha
Forest Biomass/Carbon Stock Inventory using LiDAR
• Space borne LiDAR

Observations from ICESAT-2 and
GEDI (on board ISS) would
provide global LiDAR footprints
for forest height and biomass
studies.
•Terrestrial Laser scanner (TLS)

use for intensive site
characterisation and validation
of Space based LiDAR outputs.
Forest Loss in Elephant Ranging Areas
(1930 to 2013)
Alien Invasive Plants Mapping & Risk Assessment
Vilayati Tulsi
In flowering Phenology during monsoon (left) and early winter (right)
Invasion hotspots
Susceptibility to Invasion
< 25% (<5 species)
25-50% (6-25 species)
50-75% (46-65 species)
75-100% (>65 species)
Vilayati Tulsi’s fractional cover (colored pixels)
mapped in Doon Valley using ALI satellite data Non-forest
(Superimposed on grey scale ALI red band) Biogeographic Zone
Forest Fire Prevention & Management
 Forest fire risk assessment & danger rating
 Active fire detection and monitoring
 Burnt area assessment
 Recovery assessment
 Quantification of emissions from forest fires
 Ecological Impacts of forest fires
2500 2282 2236 2259
No. of fire incidences
2000 VIIRS
1500
MODIS
Resourcesat-1 LISS-III Image Resourcesat-1 LISS-III Image
5th April 2012 Rajaji National Park 5th April 2012 Rajaji National Park
1000 907
761
594
500 348 351 279
115 128 95
Smoke plume
63
9
0
Active flame
Burnt area
(severe)
Burnt area
SFCC (NIR,Red,Green) FCC (SWIR,NIR,RED) (moderate)
VIIRS/MODIS
Forest Carbon Sequestration Studies
• Under ISRO-GBP National Carbon Project a

network of 5 forest flux towers has been established.
527.11 gCm2yr-1
702.73 gCm2yr-1
Geospatial Technologies in Agriculture & Soils
Dr. Suresh Kumar

Group Head
Agriculture & Soils Department
4- Kalidas Road , Dehradun
Email: suresh_kumar@iirs.gov.in
Remote
Sensing GIS
Agricultural Resources
Crop Resource Soil Resource

Management Management
Food Security
Sustainable Environment
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS
• Monitoring of crop • Crop Insurance

• Crop inventory condition • Water Management
• Crop production forecast • Assessment of drought • Precision Farming
• Crop Yield Modelling • Crop diseases assessment • Agriculture Information
System
Watershed management RS / GIS Climate change impact

• Characterization APPLICATIONS - Crop productivity
• Soil erosion modeling IN - Soil Quality
• Development planning AGRICULTURE - Soil erosion
• Monitoring watershed - Vegetation carbon flux
&
- Soil carbon : Stock and Dynamics
SOILS
• Soil Resource Mapping

• Degraded lands Inventory • Digital Terrain analysis
• Land Evaluation for land use
• Monitoring land degradation
• • Digital soil mapping
planning
• Desertification • Soil Nutrient Mapping
• Agro-climatic suitability
analysis
Crop Inventory and Acreage Estimation
• Several crops are grown in rabi

(winter) and kharif (summer)
seasons in the country.
• Crops (vegetation) provide typical

spectral characteristics which helps
to map these crops through digital
and visual analysis of RS data.
Wheat Sugarcane
• Crops at various stages provide
typical spectra that helps to
distinguish
Mustard Paddy Potato

Reflected
Incoming Radiation
EMR Red and IR
vegetation
EMR interaction with plant cell

Reflected radiation depends on • Red (R) (Band 3) radiation will
- Composition of cell be absorbed for photosynthesis
chlorophyll contents, internal structure, lignin,
cellulose, water contents • Infra Red (IR) (Band 4) will
- Crop stress due to nutrients or water reflected higher
- Crop growth stages – temporal satellite data
This contrast used in crop studies

B4
B2
B3
Spectral Index : Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
It is a function of Incident and reflected light
NDVI= NIR – Red Where 0< NDVI< 1

NIR + Red
• NDVI values vary with absorption of red light by plant chlorophyll
and the reflection of infrared radiation by water-filled leaf cells.
It is correlated with Intercepted Photo-synthetically Active
Radiation (IPAR).
• used to measure green biomass and estimate changes in

vegetation state
• NDVI vary with leaf area Index and vegetation canopy
• Measure photo synthetically active radiation (PAR) absorbed by
the canopy
Band 3 (IR) Band 2 (Red) NDVI

LISS – IV (24 Oct
2017)
Sugarcane plant Muzaffarnagar (UP)
Sugarcane Fresh planted
Fallow land
Sugarcane Ratoon
Sugarcane Ratoon crop
Poplar plantation
Poplar plantation
Spatial Resolution
10s ..
Resourcesat-2,/2A, Carto2S,
RISAT, SARAL
5.8m 23m
Resourcesat-1 , Cartosat-
00s .. 1,2/2A/2B SUB- METER
PAN : 2.5 m, 1m LISS-
3/4/AWiFS: 23 m/5.8m/56m
36m 55m 72m

IRS-1C/1D
90s ..
PAN: 5.8 m, WiFS: 188 m
80s .. (IRS-1A/1B)
LISS-I/II: 72.5m/ 36.5m
188m 360m 1km
BHASKARA 1 /2
70s .. TV Camera, Microwave
Radiometer
Temporal Resolution
17 Jan 13 Feb 17 Mar 02 Apr 05 May 25 May
17 Jan. 13 Feb 17 Mar 02 Apr 05 May 25 May
1995
1995 1996
1996 1997 1997 1998
1998 1999
1999
1972 2002
Landsat MSS (Dec 1972) IRS 1D LISS-III (2002)

10
Crop Production Forecasting
- Identification of crops, crop acreage estimation and forecasting their yield.
- Crop identification and discrimination based on a unique spectral signature.
- Spectral response of a crop canopy is influenced by:

- Leaf area Index (LAI) and percent ground cover
- Crop growth stages
- Crop stress condition
- Canopy architecture
Remote Sensing data

• Spectral Resolution : Multispectral/ hyperspectral bands
• Temporal resolution:
- Weekly, fortnightly or monthly data to study crop growth analysis
- Seasonal data : Crop at optimum growth stages (Rabi, Kharif and Zaid)
• Spatial Resolution : 56m (AWiFS) to 5.8 m (IRS LISS IV)

Crop Inventory & Mapping
Cropping Pattern Analysis Cropping Pattern
Eastern Rajasthan
Summer (Kharif)
Winter (Rabi)
Agro-Horticulture Agro-ecosystem (High Resolution Data)
Pixel-based classification
Tree/crop
Hedge
Orchard
CHAMAN (Coordinated Horticulture Assessment & Management using
geoinformatics)
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare launched a programme, called CHAMAN
(Coordinated Horticulture Assessment & Management using geoinformatics) during
September, 2014.
Objectives of CHAMAN Project :
• Area assessment and production forecasting of 7 major horticultural crops in

selected districts of major states
• Geospatial applications for Horticultural Development and Management
Planning
• Detailed scientific field level studies for developing technology for crop
identification, yield modelling and disease assessment
Crop Yield Modeling
Crop yields basically depends on many more factors than chlorophyll presence
(i). Relationships between NDVI and crop yield.
• correlation coefficients are moderate to low

• require excessive field measurement programs
• to collect yield data in the field, which at the regional scale is laborious
and expensive
(ii). Crop growth simulation models

Energy balance approaches for attaining crop yield and concluded that there is no
sufficient data available to apply deterministic models that simulate physiological
processes at the regional scale.
Biomass production model proposed by Monteith (1972) based on solar radiation

and leaf development has potential, and that it can be applied in conjunction to
satellite data.
(i). Temporal NDVI based spectral yield models for wheat crop
(a) 60
(a) Yield = 20.031 + 39.354 *NDVI_ 8th Mar

55
(R2 = 0.683, S.E.E = 2.727, F = 47.487
50
( c) Yield = 19.1 + 9.2*NDVI_ 25th feb + 1.17* NDVI_22Mar

45 + 31.7 NDVI_ 8th Mar
( R2 =0.691, S.E.E = 2.827, F = 14.88 )
40
35
30
.40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 60
NDVI
55
( c)
Predicted Yield (Q/ha)
50
45
40
35
30
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Observed yield (Q/ha)

Crop Disease Monitoring
Remote sensing technologies have facilitated the direct detection of

foliar diseases quickly, conveniently, economically
- Chlorophyll contents, plant physiology, plant growth, water stress will be
adversely affected which can be easily detected by spectral indices.
NDVI of infected crop will be less than normal crop.
Wheat rusts a: yellow rust; b: leaf rust and c: stem rust

NDVI Value will be less than Normal Crop.
Drought Assessment and Monitoring
Complex phenomenon with impacts having different time scales.
Remote sensing data play an

important role in drought
monitoring, especially in studying
spatio-temporal dynamics of
drought.
Spectral Indices from RS : major

tools for monitoring vegetation
conditions. Water stress condition
• Poor crop growth

• High evaporation rate – moisture deficit will result increase in plant temp.
• Increase in land surface temperature
– Thermal RS data
NATIONAL IRS- STATE DISTRICT
NOAA
Terra Modis WiFS IRS P6 AWiFS
AVHRR
Wavelength range (µm) Spatial resolution Spatial resolution

188 metres 56 metres
0.62 – 0.67 (red) Wave lengths 3 bands Wave lengths 4 bands
0.841 – 0.876 (NIR)
(green, red and NIR ) (green, red, NIR and MIR)
Spatial Resolution
250m ,swath 2330 kms Swath : 700 kms. Swath : 700 kms.
Wavelength range (µm) Spectral response of vegetation

0.58 – 0.68 (red) Red – more absorption due to chlorophyll
0.725 – 1.1 (NIR) Near Infra red – more reflection due to leaf structure
3.55 – 3.93 (MIR) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
10.3 – 11.3 (TIR) NIR – Red / NIR+Red
11.5 - 12.5 (TIR) Reflected radiation in Near infrared and red bands.
NDVI ranges from -1 to +1
Spatial Resolution Water – negative NDVI
1.1 Km Clouds – zero NDVI
Vegetation – positive NDVI represents density, vigor
NADAMS
National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System
National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System (NADAMS)
• Agricultural conditions are monitored at state/district level using daily NOAA

AVHRR data for 9 states.
• AWiFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor) of Resourcesat 2 (56 m resolution) is used

for detailed assessment of agricultural drought at district and sub district level in
four states.
• MODIS 250m, 1km derived NDWI,

SASI datasets have also been interpreted
to complement the assessment.
Fortnightly/monthly report of
drought condition is provided
to the Government under NADAMS.
KISAN (C[K]rop Insurance using Space technology And geoiNformatics)
A new project, KISAN was launched on 5th October 2015. (Experimental)
- Use of high resolution remote sensing data from satellites and UAVs for optimum
crop cutting experiment planning and improving yield estimation.
- Currently, The study was conducted in 4 districts in the 4 states (one in each
state) during Kharif season for Rice and cotton crop.
- During Rabi season 2015-16, the study is being conducted in 8 districts in 4

states (two in each state) of India for Wheat, Rice and Rabi Jowar crop. The
states are Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
- In each district, CCE (Crop Cutting Experiment) sites were generated based on
various remote sensing data (both optical and microwave) derived parameters,
such as sowing /transplanting date, Biomass, NDVI (Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index), Leaf Area Index (LAI), LSWI.
- Approximately 250 CCEs were conducted in each district. The CCE data were
analyzed to understand the minimum number of CCEs required for getting
block level yield with defined accuracy level.
Microwave remote sensing: RISAT-1, first Indian microwave RS was
launched on 26 April 2012 by ISRO. It has opened up new vistas for operational
utilisation of microwave data for management of natural resources and Disaster
management.
RISAT-1 carries a multi-mode C-band (5.35 GHz)
Spatial resolution : 3 to 50 m depending on the type of mode.
2 3
2 Sentinel-1A EU C-band
1 & 1B (2014/2016) SAR
1 2
1. October transplanted Paddy

2. November transplanted Paddy
3. January transplanted Paddy
FCC from RISAT-1 MRS data

2 in 26 October, 21st November
2013 and 9 January 2014
showing paddy growing in
parts of Vietnam.
10th January 2015 12th February 2015
Orchard
Wheat
Wasteland
Village
m-delta decomposed image from RISAT-1 Compact Polarimetric

data showing (R: Even, G: Volume and b: Odd bounce
scattering scattering) of part Junagad district
Wheat shows dominance of even & surface scattering (top
LHS) which gets transformed to volume with partial even
bounce scattering in panicle maturity phase (top RHS). Field
photo on left
Simulating Climate Change Impact on Crop productivity - Wheat
Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (EPIC) Model : a process-based model
simulate climate-soil-management interactions.
Input data: Hundal & Kaur (1996) : 18.7 to 25.7
Climate: World Clime (1x1 km.)- Tmin & max., precipitation: A2 scenario (2020,2050 % decline in wheat yield &
&2080) reduction of 07 days in crop duration
Soil: Texture, OC, pH, BD : Soil samples at 0 -15, 15-30 & 30-50 cm depth in Punjab.
Topography: CartoDEM-slope &elevation
Crop: area & LAI
Crop management: Planting & harvesting date, fert. Use & tillage practices, irrigation Dehradun
Crop Cutting (yield, biomass, plant density)
•Climate: Av. Annual Rainfall: 1750 mm. Mean temperature: 21.8oC
Sensitivity analysis
most sensitive parameter that affect

crop yield :Biomass Energy Ratio,
Potential Heat Units (0C), Maximum
Potential LAI
Calibration & Validation

Climate change on crop duration
Based on field observed yield and
LAI data (Crop cutting experiment).
Scenario Period Mean

Wheat crop under A2a scenario without Baseline Productivity 3.17
CO2 fertilization results a large reduction in (t.ha-1)
yield of about 24 % in 2080s. A2a 2020 -13.93
2050 4.13
2080 -23.72
Soil Resource
Management
C
Soil Resource Management
• Soil Resource Characterizing and mapping

• Soil Nutrient mapping
• Inventory and characterization of degraded lands
• Watershed Characterization and Development Planning
• Watershed Monitoring
• Land capability/suitability assessment for land use planning
• National Organizations:
• National Remote Sensing Center, IIRS , ISRO

• National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, ICAR, Nagpur
• Soil and Land Use Survey of India, Ministry of Agriculture,
• State Soil Survey Department
Land Resource Appraisal
: Inventory & Assessment
Soil Resource Inventory plays a vital role in

natural resource management of a country.
It is essential for appraisal of land resource

potential, land use planning and policy-
formulation.
Soil Mapping requires
Soil–landscape analysis or Physiographic

Analysis
Geomorphology and terrain parameters (slope &

aspect) are analyzed with in association with land
use / land cover to derive landscape unit.
Thereafter, soil profiles are studied to characterize

soil types in these landscape unit.
Soil Resource Mapping
Soil Forming Factors described by Jenny (1941)
S = f (cl, o, r, p, t, .......)
where, cl - Climate, o - Organism, r - Relief,
p - Parent material, t - Time
i) Climate (particularly, temperature and precipitation);

i) Living organism (Land use / land cover)
ii) Parent material
iii) Topography
iv) Time that parent materials
Mapping of Soil Forming Factors together forms basis for
delineation of soil mapping units which is known as
physiographic- soil analysis or soil-landscape analysis
Shiwalik Hills
Siwalik Hills Steep sloping
Mod. Steep to steep
Piedmont
- Gently sloping
Lower Piedmont -Cropland
-Gently sloping
-cultivated
Piedmont
- Gently sloping
- Forest
Alluvial plain : • Satellite data (FCC) when there is no crop (Fallow period)
nearly level • RS data of appropriate scale (1:50,000 scale)
• Visual interpretation of RS data to interpret soil forming factors
1. Preliminary Visual Interpretation :
Visual satellite data analysis to interpret physiographic units

- Geology / geomorphology lithology (Parent Material)
- Topography (Relief)
- Land use / land cover (Organism)
2. Field Survey (Ground Truth Data Collection)
Sample strips representing variation in the area.

physiographic units and soil profiles were studied
Subsequently, soil profiles representative of a particular landscape were

excavated, morphological characteristics (Soil colour, structure,
consistency etc.) are studied and soil samples collected for analysis in
the laboratory.
The approach followed for delineation physiographic
analysis can be discussed as follows:
1. Preliminary Visual Interpretation:

2. Ground Truth Collection
3. Post field interpretation
C
SIDE SLOPES OF DENUDATIONAL HILLS
SOIL PROFILE
VALLEY FILLS
Ap SOIL PROFILE IN
A2 VALLEY FILLS
B1
Satellite Imagery
LISS III FCC draped on DEM
Physiographic -Soil Map

Buried pediment (BP1)
PHYSIOGRAPHIC SOIL MAP OF STUDY AREA
(Part of Tillari Command Area)
Rock Out Crops
L.S. Typic Ustorthents
Rock Out Crops
C.L. Typic Dystrusteps
L.S. Typic Dystrusteps
L.S. Typic Dystrusteps
F.L. Typic Dystrusteps
C.L. Typic Ustifluents
F.L. Typic Haplustepts
C. L Aquic Ustifluents
MudFlats/MarshyLands
Salt Pans
Beach
Habitation
----
----
Scale
Commonly used land evaluation methods for assessing
the potential and productivity of soil for agricultural
purposes are :
(i). Land Capability Classification
(ii). Land Irrigability Classification
(iii) FAO Framework of Land Evaluation (1976)

Land Evaluation ?
Crop Match Soil Map

requirements with Soil & land
criteria characteristics
Crop
Suitability
Agricultural
Land-use
planning
policies
& plans
Land Capability Classification
Land Match Soil & land

capability with characteristics
criteria criteria
Land Capability
classes
(i). Land Capability Classification :
The land is divided into eight capability classes, which are

numbered in Roman numerals from I to VIII.
Class I to class IV : suitable for cultivation
class V to class VIII : unsuitable for cultivation
The subclass are based on kinds of dominant limitation

such as wetness or excess water (w), Climate (c), Soil
(s) and erosion (e)
LAND CAPABILITY MAP
LEGEND
Suitable for Crops with Mod Lim
Suitable for Crops with Severe Lim
Suitable for Forestry/Plantations
Suitable for Forestry – Mod Lim
Suitable for Forestry – Mod Lim
Suitable for Forestry - Severe Lim
Not Suitable for Vegetation
LAND DEGRADATION
According to a study conducted by ICAR and Deptt. of Space, degraded and

wasteland in India cover 120.4 million hectare (Mha) .
The country is losing Rs 28,500 crore, at current price, on account of

degraded lands due to 12% loss as per the total value of productivity .
• Water erosion : 93 Mha (78 %)

• Wind erosion : 11 Mha
• Salt affected soils : 6.74 Mha
• Shifting cultivation : 4.36 Mha forest area under accelerated erosion
Land Degradation
According to a study conducted by ICAR and Deptt. of
Space, degraded and wasteland in India cover 120.4
million hectare (Mha) .
Rills & Gullies
Land slip
Erosion Processes
Runoff and soil loss
Sheet erosion Sheet and rills

Soil Erosion Severity
V. Very severe
E5
Very severe
E4
Severe
E3
Moderate
E2
E1
- Significant change in surface
characteristics of soil
Slight - RS data provide unique spectral

characteristics to identify and map
46
Salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas
Salt affected soils
LISS-IV (April, 2006)
Waterlogged
area
LISS-IV (April, 2006)

SALT- AFFECTED SOILS IN PART
OF SHARDA SAHAYAK COMMAND
AREA (INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS),
JAUNPUR (UP)
1975 – 46,029 ha
1999 – 28,749 ha
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Data
• 200+ channels at 10 to 12 bits
• examines very detailed spectra of the earth's surface
• Provide images in many narrow, contiguous, spectral bands
- Hyperion (EO-1) satellite data with 220 spectral bands
- Warfighter-1 with 200 channels onboard ORBVIEW-4
Improved characterization and quantitative analysis of resources
Applications
- Crop stress mitigation and site specific management
(sustainability with precision agriculture)
- Crop yield prediction
- Narrow band NDVI related to leaf chlorophyll (link to nitrogen)
- Leaf area index, Biomass
- to quantify soil properties

- soil quality: soil carbon ; soil clay mineral mapping
- Land Degradation (soil salinity and alkalinity)
Hyperspectral RS data in Quantifying Severity of Salt-affected Soils
Land Degradation
Six spectral bands (Band 9, 20,22,28,29 and 46) of Hyperion -1 satellite data were
Indo-Gangetic Plains
Mathura (UP) identified as most sensitive bands to the salinity
EC distribution
p540
!( !( 39
!(
•SALINITY INDEX
hs3
hw321!(!(
38 √ Band 9 (436.99 nm) * Band 28 (630.32 nm)
(!!( p6
!(
hw136
(!!(
!(
37 •BRIGHTNESS INDEX
3334 35
!( !( !(
!( 32
p4
!( 23 !( 31 30
!(24 !(
√ ((Band 9 2 (436.99 nm) + Band 20 2 (548.93nm)
25 !( !(28!( 29
!(26
!( !(
!(
27 + Band 28 2 (630.32 nm))/3)
Salt-affected soils
High
Medium
Low Legend
Normal Normal Soil (0.16 - 3.07)
Slightly Salt-Affected Soil (4.28 - 7.70)
Moderately Salt-Affected Soil (8.10 - 10)
Highly Salt-Affected Soil (10.21 - 30.41)
Correlation Coeff.
Spectral EC pH ECe ESP SAR
Indices The RMSE between observed and predicted EC, SAR, ESP maps for
Salinity 0.81 0.52 0.78 0.80 0.80 Salinity index was the least i.e. 7.48%, 18.14% and 7.85% followed
index by Brightness index i.e. 7.7%, 33.36% and 9.60% respectively.
Brightness 0.77 0.52 0.73 0.79 0.77
index
Hyperspectral modelling for mapping of soil properties using AVIRIS-NG
Objective: Spatial prediction and mapping of soil properties using PLSR modelling
Study Area & Data Used
• ICRISAT and Shadnagar sites
• AVIRIS-NG image
• Field collected soil samples analysis data
Brief Methodology Adopted
Pre-processing and
atmospheric correction of Field collected
AVIRIS -NG soil Samples
Spectral data from AVIRIS-NG

Soil data from
lab analysis
PLSR Modelling for selection
of specific wavelengths
Calibration and
validation of Models
MLR model and developing
equation for soil properties
Generation of map using

AVIRIS-NG image
• Pre-processing and atmospheric
correction
• Spectra generation
• Soil Masking
• Generation and comparison of
different models
• Best performing models chosen
for mapping
 Spatial mapping of Soil organic carbon (SOC) and clay content

Watershed Management refers to the rational utilization of land
and water resources of watershed for optimal production with minimal
hazard to natural resources.
“Watershed” is a natural hydrologic entity governed by the terrain topography

from where run-off is drained to a point.
Watershed Management
“Watershed” is a natural hydrologic entity governed
by the terrain topography from where run-off is
drained to a point.
To identify area of soil erosion

To estimate surface runoff generation
To estimate sediment yield / soil loss
To model soil nutrient loss
Empirical Soil Erosion Model : RUSLE Soil Erosion Risk Crop land (Mainly maize)
Crop land (mainly paddy)
Crop land (Maize+tree)
Dense Scrub
Erosion model : RUSLE Mod. Dense Forest
A : R * K * L* S* P Open Scrub
Road (Unmettled)
Settlement
where
A : av. annual soil loss t ha-1 yr-1
R : rainfall erosivity factor
K : soil erodebilty factor
LS : slope steepness and length factor
Resourcesat LISS IV data C : cover and management factor
P : support practice factor
R – factor : 931
DEM
(MJmmha-1h-1 yr -1) V. Slight
Slight
1406 Moderate
Severe
1313 Very Severe
Settlement
1219 Unmettled road
1126
1032
939
Land use /land cover Av. Soil loss (t/ha/yr)

LS factor
Crop land (maize) 24.40
Crop land (paddy) 14.10
96. 9500
Crop land (maize+tree) 15.87
77. 5600 Mod. Dense Forest 9.65
58. 1700
Dense Scrub 15.75
38. 7800
19. 3900 Open scrub 128.23
0. 0000
Terrain characterization
• Elevation
• Slope and aspect
• Terrain wetness Index
• Stream Power Index
• Sediment Transport Index
• Specific catchment Area.
Digital Soil Mapping
There is need of large scale soil information for soil health and quality assessment as well as for watershed management.
CartoDEM Soil sampling Slope map

TC
Soil Sampling
N
Primary Atrributes Carto DEM RS data

 Elevation, Slope
 Profile curvature Terrain Soil Nutrients
characterization (TC, N, P)
 Plan curvature
Secondary Attributes Correlation & Regression
Topographic wetness index (TWI) of terrain indices and soil attributes
Sediment transport index (STI)
Geostatistical analysis
Stream Power Index (SPI) Kriging, Co-kriging P
Spatial distributed
OC, N and P maps
•Among the terrain indices, TWI showed highest correlation coefficient for TC (r 2= 0.71), N
(r2= 0.67) and P (r2= 0.66) followed by SPI and STI.
•TWI alone as co-variable has improved the performance by 55.81, 21.78 and 4.50 % for
TC, N and P, respectively relative to ordinary kriging.
Soil Carbon Stock Assessment
NCP- SCP- Soil Carbon Pool Assessment- Phase I (April,2008- March, 2012)
Reliable estimate of soil organic and inorganic density mapping and estimation of their pool sizes are
important for accounting global warming, climate change impact and for policy perspectives.
• SOC and SIC pool sizes of India was estimated 22.7 Pg an 12.8 Pg, respectively.
• Higher SOC density was observed in soils in plantation (23.5 Kg m-2) followed
by forest (13.99 Kg m-2) and agricultural land (5.85 – 6.74 Kg m-2).
• Forest soil have higher soil carbon stock (9.38 Pg).
Soil carbon density (Kg m-2 )
Soil sampling sites Soil Organic Carbon

Density
Climate Change Impact on Soil Quality : CENTURY Model
- Mid Himalaya (Chamba, Tehri Garhwal)
Soil Carbon Sequestration (2011-2099)

Model calibration & validation : Soil organic carbon from 1970 to 2015 for A2 scenario
10000
Soil Organic carbon (g/m2)
Bhaitan Soil: Kanatal

8000
Malas
6000
Kantal
4000
Kotigad
2000
R2=0.95 : RMSE: 538 Pata
0 Thangdhar
1973
1970
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
2015
Time (Year)
Input parameters: 10000
Organic carbon (g m-2)
• Monthly rainfall & temp., soil type, crop 8000 Simulation of SOC change : 2011 - 2099
management practices. 6000
4000
• SDSM model used to downscale GCM
2000
the climatic variables (temp. and
0
rainfall) under scenarios A2periods:
2020 (2011-2040), 2050 (2041-2070),
2080 (2071-2099).
Sites (Vilage name)
• Management practices constant Obs. Pred.
Predicted OC from 2011 to 2099 and compared with the base year.
SOC in Bhaitan, Kanatal, Kotdwar, Malas, Pata and Thangdhar soil series may
decrease by 11.6, 15.8, 17.19, 13.54, 19.2 and 12.7 percent, respectively for A2
scenario.
A Nation that destroy its soils destroy itself.
- Franklin Roosevelt, US President, 1937
“Upon the handful of soil our survival depends.

Husband it and it will grow our food, our fuel and
our shelter and surround us with beauty. Abuse it
and it will collapse and die taking man with it.” ----
--- 1500 BC; Atharvaveda
Thank You.
29-06-2020
Remote Sensing and GIS Applications

in Geology & Geomorphology
Rajat S. Chatterjee
RS and GIS Applications in Geology & Geomorphology …

Remote Sensing is the science of sensing Earth and Planetary
objects from a remote distance based on electromagnetic (EM)
radiation received from the objects. There are Many Applications …
Geomorphological Mapping
Lithological Mapping
Geological Structure Mapping
Mineral & Hydrocarbon Exploration
Groundwater Targeting and Flow Modelling
Construction Material Exploration
Engineering Geological Investigations
Environmental Impact Assessment
Geo-hazard Mapping and Monitoring
Many more …
Remote sensing is more effective and powerful in synergy with
complementary datasets such as Geophysical data, Geochemical
data, Subsurface geological information and Ground truths…
iirs R.S. Chatterjee/GSD/IIRS(ISRO)
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Remote Sensing Image Interpretation & Analysis
An image of the earth surface represents a STACK of many
thematic layers:
 Layer of Topographic Information

 Layer of Vegetation Information
 Layer of Landuse/Infrastructural Information
 Layer of Soil Information
 Layer of Geomorphological Information
 Layer of Lithological Information
 Layer of Structural Information
From all these information we need to separate geological information from

direct and indirect signatures, which includes Geomorphology, Lithology and
Geological Structure.
We do it by -
Visual Image Interpretation
Digital Image Enhancement and Feature Extraction
Visual Image Analysis …

Interpretation Elements
The objects of our interest are expressed in the image in terms of Direct and
Indirect Interpretation keys …
Photo/Image Elements (Direct Interpretation Elements)
Tone or Hue
Texture
Shape or Form
Size
Pattern
Association
Terrain Elements (Indirect Interpretation Elements)
Landform
Drainage
Vegetation
Landuse
Convergence of Information from Photo/Image Elements and
Terrain/Geotechnical Elements is the Key to a Successful Visual
Interpretation …
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Remote Sensing of Rock Types…
IGNEOUS Rocks
• Homogeneous, Massive, Hard, Compact and
Resistant. Lacks Bedding. Course textures.
Characteristic Joint Patterns and Landforms.
SEDIMENTARY Rocks
• Soft and Bedded. Vulnerable to more
dissection. Fine Texture. Differential resistance
to weathering and erosion yield Ridge-and-
Valley Topography. Characteristic Landforms.
METAMORPHIC Rocks
• Regional Foliation gives striated appearance in
the rock mass due to differential weathering
along the weak planes. Presence of
deformational structures.
Remote Sensing of Rock Types…
Igneous Rocks (Volcanic)
Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks (Sandstone-Shale)
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Visual Image Interpretation Elements: Terrain/Geotechnical Elements …
Drainage
Significance
Pattern
Horizontal sediments or uniformly resistant

Dendritic crystalline rocks; Gentle regional slope at A. Dendritic B. Parallel
present or at the time of drainage inception
Moderate to steep slopes or areas of

Parallel parallel elongate landforms
Dipping or folded sedimentary, volcanic, or
low-grade metasedimentary rocks.
Trellis Develops mostly in interbedded dipping
sequence.
Streams lack regional continuity; Controlled
Rectangular by orthogonal fracture system.
Volcanic domes or Residual dome-like
Radial landforms
Structural domes and basins:
Annular Erosion exposes rocks of varying
resistance
Visual Image Interpretation Elements: Terrain/Geotechnical Elements …
Drainage Density and Significance …
 Drainage density can be estimated as the ratio of total drainage length divided
by area.
 It describes the hardness and infiltration capacity of surface materials. It can be
used to differentiate rock types based on hardness and/or infiltration capacity.
Drainage Density depends on the following factors:
• Resistance of rock formation: Harder rocks – Low; Softer rocks – High
• Permeability of rocks: Permeable rocks – Low; Impervious rocks – High
• Topographic slope: Gentle slope – Low; Steep slope – High
• Climate (Rainfall & Temperature)
 Drainage density is useful to identify rock units as well as folded structure.
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Geological structures such as folds, faults,

lineaments and unconformities can be mapped
from remote sensing images using tonal and
physiographic expressions.
Remote Sensing images show the synoptic view

of the outcrop pattern of the exposed regional
folds. Buried folds are identified by indirect
signatures such as topographic and drainage Exposed plunging antiform fold (dome ?) in aerial photo
anomalies.
Geological faults and lineaments can be
identified as linear tonal and/or physiographic
signatures with or without displacement.
Geomorphic signatures such as topographic
break, drainage segment anomaly and stream
migration are useful indicators.
Yamuna tear fault (strike slip fault) in Optical Mx image
Remote Sensing based Information on geological structures and their analysis provide
important input for Groundwater Prospecting, Geological Hazard Assessment,
Engineering Geological Projects, Mineral Exploration etc.
Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Geological Structures

Folds and Folding (Exposed Folds) …
Recognizing a fold from the curvature of strike and variation in dip of the
bedding plane.
Study of flat-iron pattern over the structure reveals the geometry of the fold.
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Kynshi Fault in East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya

South of Laitlyngkot showing prominent faults (Nongkshaid Fault) and lineaments

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Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Thermal Remote Sensing

The EM wavelength region of 3-35 μm is popularly called the thermal-infrared
region in terrestrial remote sensing.
The greatest interest in geologic remote sensing has been 8-14 μm range due
to the following reasons:
• At ambient terrestrial temperatures, the peak of the Earth’s blackbody radiation occurs
at around 9.7 μm.
• An excellent atmospheric window lies between 8 and 14 μm, and poorer windows exist
at 3-5 μm and 17-25 μm. Interpretation of the data in the 3-5 μm regions is rather
complicated due to overlap with solar reflection radiation in day time, and the 17-25 μm
region is still not well investigated.
• Prominent and diagnostic narrow spectral features (reststrahlen bands) occur due to
bending and stretching molecular vibrations in minerals in this region. These bands
vary with composition and structure of minerals and can therefore be used for
identification of mineral composition of rocks.
Atmospheric Transmittance
Thermal Spectra of Geological Materials
Broad Absorption Band Reststrahlen Band

(due to stretching vibrations between Silicon & Oxygen atoms)
Thermal IR spectra of Igneous Rocks

The centre of the absorption band shifts towards
higher wavelength with decreasing silica content
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Thermal Properties of geologic materials and water at 20ºC.
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Landsat TM FCC754 showing

the broad lithological categories:
dark volcanics, altered products
and limestone mountain.
Landsat TM band6 image

(i) Warmest areas represent volcanics, most
of which are dark basalts.
(ii) Altered zones appear mostly in
moderately light tone implying absorption
of solar energy by water.
(iii) Limestone rocks appear in dark tone due
to very high reflection of solar radiation.
Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Radar Remote Sensing
 Operates both during day and night. Important in Polar Regions.

 Penetrates through clouds. Important in Tropical Regions.
ERS at 11H25 A.M. Landsat TM at 10H43 A.M. Aerial Photograph SIR-C RADAR Image
(Scene Size: 50 km x 50 km)
Waterford, Ireland on August 9, 1991 by ERS and Landsat TM An erupting volcano in the Kamchatka Peninsula
(Russia) on November 28, 1994.
 Penetrates through vegetation and ground.
Band-X Band-L Band-S Band-P
Underground Pipeline
Vegetation parcels
Ground Penetration of Radar Wave
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Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Radar Remote Sensing
Sensitivity to Surface Geometry provides information on Geomorphology and

Geological Structures.
Sensitivity to Surface Roughness in non vegetated terrains provides information

on Lithology.
Sensitivity to Moisture Content provides information on Unconsolidated Materials

and Soils.
Radar Remote Sensing – Surficial Bedrock Mapping
Study Area: 22km. x 25km.
Bathurst Island, Canada

RADARSAT S7, Descending Node
Courtesy: CCRS, Canda March 6, 1996
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Radar Remote Sensing – Surficial Bedrock Mapping
Study Area: 22km. x 25km.
Bathurst Island, Canada

RADARSAT S7, Descending Node
Courtesy: CCRS, Canda March 6, 1996
Courtesy: CCRS, Canada
Radar Remote Sensing – Geomorphological Mapping
Roter Kamm Meteorite

Impact Crater in Namibia
Fused product of SIR-C and
Optical remote sensing data.
Lithological discrimination is
clear from optical multispectral
data.
Geomorphology and Structural

features are highlighted by the
radar data.
Buried channels can be

identified due to surface
penetration of radar wave.
Crater boundary is distinct.
Aeolian landforms are

prominent.
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HH σo Final Product
HV σo Final Product
HH σo Final Product
HV σo Final Product
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Remote Sensing of Geomorphology & Landforms

Geomorphology deals with the physical
processes involved and the materials involved
in shaping the Earth surface as a function of
elevation, slope and surface ruggedness.
Landform is the unit of geomorphological study.
• A Landform is characterized by its unique topography,

composition and structure.
• Landform is a truly multivariate feature: Lithology &
Structure vs. Geomorphic Processes vs. Climate vs. Time.
• Remote sensing provides synoptic view and elevation
related information of landforms and facilitate their
recognition. Multi-spectral satellite image
showing alluvial fan of Ghaggar
We study Morphography, Morphometry, Morphogenesis, River modified by human activity
Morphochronology and Morphodynamics of landforms. (Panchkula, near Chandigarh City)
Remote Sensing based Geomorphological Information provides essential input for a

variety of Geological Applications such as Groundwater Prospecting, Geological
Hazard Assessment, Engineering Geological Projects, Mineral Exploration etc.
Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Geomorphology
Monochromatic satellite image of Kosi Fan showing Multi-spectral satellite image showing alluvial
Progressive westward migration of Kosi River (Kosi river fan of Ghaggar River modified by human
draining over an area of very high relief and monsoonal climate activity (Panchkula, near Chandigarh City)
generate high sediment load)
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Alluvial plain
Ox-bow lake
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Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Geol. Resource Exploration
• Ground water targeting.
• Recharge estimation.
• Numerical groundwater flow model
• Quality Assessment
Combined map of groundwater prospect and

quality in part of National Capital Region
Groundwater Flow Modelling of Doon Valley
Remote Sensing based Groundwater Prospecting …
First Order or Direct Indicators

• Features associated with recharge zones: rivers, canals, lakes, ponds etc.
• Features associated with discharge zones: springs and other sites of effluent seepage
• Soil moisture
• Vegetation
Second Order or Indirect Indicators

• Topographic features and general slope
• Type of rocks (porosity & permeability)
• Regional structural features
• Fracture systems in hard rock areas
• Weathering depth (relative)
• Drainage density (relative)
• Spl. geomorphological features like sinkholes, alluvial fans, dykes, buried channels etc.
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Groundwater prospects in
alluvial aquifers based on the
occurrences of effluent/
influent streams, soil
moisture and vegetation
differences.
Remote Sensing in Geology & Geomorphology: Geol. Resource Exploration
Remote Sensing & GIS-based Exploration of Base Metal

Deposits in Pur-Banera Area, Bhilwara District, Rajasthan
• Base metal exploration and GIS based

predictive modelling, Pur Banera,
Rajasthan.
• Mineral Resource Information System
(MRIS), Keonjhar, Orissa.
• Prospecting of Bauxite Deposits by
Spectrometric Analysis, Koraput, Orissa.
Khondalite
Laterite/ Vegetation
Bauxite
Mud water
Red soil
(i)
End member selection by
spectral unmixing (i) and FCC of
Laterite/Bauxite (red), red soil (ii)
(blue) and vegetation (green) end
members (ii)
17
29-06-2020
Radar Remote Sensing – Mineral Exploration
Interpretation from Radar Data Alone …
Radar Remote Sensing – Mineral Exploration
Interpretation from the Fused Product of Optical and Radar Data …
18
29-06-2020
Role of Remote Sensing in Petroleum Exploration
 Identification of Sedimentary Basin

 Lithological Identification
 Geomorphology & Terrain Analysis
 Geological Structure & Tectonic Information
 Characteristic Spectral Absorption Properties &
Hydrocarbon Index
19
29-06-2020
Remote Sensing & GIS in Geology: Landslide Study
A. Based on type of movement and type of materials

Movement Type Bedrock Predominantly Predominantly
Coarse Fine
Falls Rock Falls Debris Falls Earth Falls
Topples Rock Topples Debris Topples Earth Topples
Slide Rock Slide Debris Slide Earth Slide
Spread Rock Spread Debris Spread Earth Spread
Flow Rock Flow Debris Flow Earth Flow
B. Based on activity
Active and Non-active (old)
Non-active: (i) Dormant, (ii) Stabilized
C. Based on geometry of slip surface: Translational vs. Rotational

(Source: Prof. R.C. Lakhera)
20
29-06-2020
21
29-06-2020
Remote Sensing & GIS in Geology: Geo-environment
ERS1 (12 April, 1996): Master ERS2 (13 April, 1996): Slave
Interferogram showing wrapped topographic phase Coherence image of the interferogram
295 m.
120 m.
22
29-06-2020
40C
53C 38C
50C
55C
45C
50C
48C
Radiant temperature zonation map

59C
55C 42C
48C 48C
Kinetic temperature zonation map (with measured ground temperature)
LEGEND
1.0
0.76
Emissivity modelling
3
4
W
1
2
W W
W
6 W
5
JHARIA
7
1 Loyabad 6 Mahuda
8 W
2 Sijua 7 Bhowra
3 Katrasgarh 8 Pathardhi
9
W 4 Baghmara 9 Chasnala
5 Jamadoba
w Coal washery and
adjacent coal dumps
Spatial distribution of mining-related indicators in Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand, India extracted from
optical, night-time thermal and interferometric SAR data overlying IRS LISS-III single band image.
23
29-06-2020
Opencast Mining Area Overburden Rock Dump
Debris Coal Fire in Jharia Coalfield Abandoned Opencast Mine

Land Subsidence in Jharia Coalfield: Multi-Freq. Observation …
Study Area C-band DInSAR L-band DInSAR
Spatial Coverage: 24 sq
km.
Mining induced subsidence
Coal fire & fire induced subsidence
Ground survey based subsidence affect areas as

mapped by the mining agencies.
24
29-06-2020
Land Subsidence in Bandung city, Indonesia: GW-induced Modeling
3.04 cm
Indonesia
Husein Sastranegara
West Java Province airport
Bandung
Land Subsidence
F1
Bandung city area

Cimahi
Bandung F2a
F2
F3
Dayeuh Kolot
0
25.0
(c) Satellite image SPOT-5 FCC 321 (Red-Green-Blue) of July, 2004

D-InSAR based measurement
20.0
GPS-based measurement
Piezometric compression
(potential subsidence)
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Cimahi Selatan Bandung Central Dayeuh Kolot
Ground water extraction in Bandung D-InSAR, GPS and GW-induced Potential Subsidence
Land Subsidence in Rafsanjan city, Iran – DInSAR Observation

Challenges …
•Yearly rainfall in last 30 years was 95 mm in Rafsanjan city and 240 mm in the mountains.
• There are 1800 wells which pump out 850 million metre3 of water per year to meet water requirement of the city.
•Groundwater level went down 28 m from 1974 .
The present study aims to assess the subsidence scenario in the area.
180.00
160.00
140.00
120.00
100.00
80.00 Series1
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Groundwater level decline in some
Study Area wells (in cm/yr) during 2002-2008
Bahaman
Zarand
Rafsanjan
C-band DInSAR of ENVISAT ASAR data of 2005 and the resulting subsidence map Field Photographs of Land Subsidence
25
29-06-2020
Nepal Earthquake: DInSAR-based Observation

• A 7.8 Mw earthquake occurred 80 km NW of Kathmandu city on 25 April, 2015.
• A 7.3 Mw major aftershock occurred 70 km NE of Kathmandu, 140 km ESE of
the main shock on 12 May, 2015.
• Aftershocks were aligned ESE w.r.t. the main shock.
Nepal Earthquake: DInSAR-based Observation
26
29-06-2020
Dr. R.S. Chatterjee

Head, Geosciences Department
IIRS (ISRO), Dehradun
E-mail: rschatterjee@iirs.gov.in
27
RS & GIS FOR COASTAL

AND OCEAN SCIENCES
D. Mitra
Group Head, Marine and Atmospheric Sciences Department
mitra@iirs.gov.in
The coastal zone
The coastal zone is the transitional area between land and sea. It is a band
rather than a line. The width of the band varies from place to place and is
determined by the interaction of marine and terrestrial processes.
The zone occupies less than 18% of the Earth's land surface. Only 40% of
the one million km of coast-line is accessible and temperate enough to be
habitable. Yet it accommodates more than 60% of the world's population.
UNCED 1992, Agenda 21, Chapter 17 (Oceans).
The Coast
 Occupies 18% of the surface of the Globe
 60% of the world population lives
 2/3rd of the major cities in the world
 Population density six times higher than non-
coastal areas
 90% of the world fish catch
 8% of the ocean surface
 75-80% of the global sink of suspended river
load
 90% of the global sedimentary mineralization
(IOCCG Report No. 3)
The Coast
 Of vital importance to humanity
 Essential, fragile element of the global
ecosystem
 Zone of rapid transitions, gradients and
variations
 Very difficult to put boundaries around
 Highly dynamic
 Subject to multiple uses
HEP
Industry Forestry
Flood
protection
Sand extraction
Urban areas Quarrying Irrigation
Agriculture
Land reclamation
Tourism
Beaches
Diving
Outfall Dredging
Erosion control
Oil tanker
Inshore movements
fishing
Wrecks Ferries
Fish farming Hazard warning

Waste dumping
Oil extraction Military

Deep-sea fishing activities
Bulk transport
Economy & Infrastructure at Coastal Zone

 Resource – intensive Agriculture
* Fruit, vegetable
* Aquaculture
* Fisheries
 Exploitation of Minerals
* Oil (offshore)
* Sand
* Salt
* Other minerals ( on and offshore)
 Industry
* Shipping (building, maintenance, breaking)
* Oil-refineries
* Fish and marine resources processing
Economy & Infrastructure at Coastal Zone

 Tourism & recreation
* Beach
* Swimming
* Sailing
* Eco-tourism
 Infrastructure
* Harbour
* Pipelines, canals, roads
* Goods transport
* Navigation & Communication
* Dikes, reinforcement of the coast
 Border, Defense, Navy
Coastal Zone: Major Highlights

 High Population density and high degree of urbanisation
 Fragile & complex Ecosystems and habitats
 High density of Economic activities and infrastructure
 Conflicts & Competition for resources (land, marine, water)
 Over-exploitation of natural resources
 Pollution of the environment
 Degradation of Natural environment
 Loss of Biodiversity & Natural habitats
 Increased erosion & loss of protection against the sea or ocean
(flood)
 Rise in social inequality & poverty
What is Coastal Zone Management ??

Coastal Zone Management involves the planning
and organization of development processes and
control activities of coastal areas aiming at the
sustainable use of natural resources of the
coastal zone.
The information required for the management of a coastal zone
is very diverse because there is a series of aspects that play
a part in any activity in the coastal zone. Therefore, a coastal
management Information system will have to be an open system,
able to combine different kinds of data, that can be extended to
several levels of detail.
Coastal Zone Management Organization

There is no coastal zone manager as such, most of the times
coastal Zone management is the responsibility of different
government organizations. Coastal zone management involves
several disciplines:
 Hydrology
 Soil/water Conservation
 Environmental Expertise
 Forestry
 Agro-Economy
 Physical Planning
 Sociology/Anthropology (Demography)
 Economy
INDIAN COAST : CHARACTERISTICS
o INDIA HAS A LONG COASTLINE OF

ABOUT 7500 km INCLUDING ITS ISLAND
TERRITORIES
o EAST COAST : LARGE FAN-SHAPED DELTAS,

MANGROVES (SUNDERBAN, BHITTAR KANIKA,
PICHAVARAM,…), SALINE LAKES (CHILKA,
PULICAT), GULF OF MANNAR
o WEST COAST : NARROW COASTAL STRIP,
ESTUARIES, CREEKS, BACK WATERS, SANDY
BEACHES,
GUJARAT, SAURASHTRA & KACHCHH :
GULFS (KACHCHH, KHAMBHAT), ESTUARIES
(NARMADA, TAPTI, MAHI), SEVERAL PORTS,
LIMITED CORAL REEFS, EXTENSIVE
MANGROVES
o A & N ISLANDS : DENSE FORESTS,
MEANDERING SALINE CREEKS, CORAL REEFS
o LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS : ARE CORAL
ISLANDS
o THERE ARE 14 MARINE AND COASTAL

PROTECTED AREAS COVERING 474,000
ha
Coastal Zone Management Activities

 Collecting data concerning Coastal Zone
 Ranking of data reliability (e.g. with maps depending on
scale, source, age and material)
 Maintenance of these information (keep it up to date)
 Monitoring of inventory studies
 Generate thematic maps
 Support management and planning activities of by providing
necessary and sufficient information on coastal zone
 Support the writing policies concerning coastal zone
 Research to assess the management and planning problem in
specific areas.
MANGROVE
DEGRADATION
due to
AQUACULTURE
Along
KAKINADA
COAST, INDIA
KAKINADA
AND
ENVIRONS
SHIP BREAKING YARD, ALANG,

GUJARAT COAST, INDIA
RS for tropical coastal management

Different wavebands of light penetrate to varying degrees;
 Red light attenuates rapidly in water. Does not penetrate

deeper than 5 m
 Blue light penetrates upto 15 m. In clear water even upto 30

m
 Green light penetrates as far as 15 m in clear waters around

coral reefs
 NIR penetrates to a maximum depth of 0.5 m and IR is fully

absorbed
Status on utilization of remote sensing data

for coastal studies in India
Coastal Hazards - Main types

Short term:
A. Cyclone - hurricane - typhoon
B. Tsunami
C. Flash flooding from river
Long term:
D. Land subsidence
E. Sea level rise
F. Coastal Erosion
Definitions : Coastal Hazards

Cyclone: An atmospheric closed circulation rotating counter-clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Storm Surge: An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a cyclone or

other intense storm, and whose height is the difference between the observed
level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence
of the cyclone. Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or
astronomic high tide from the observed storm tide.
Storm Tide: The actual level of sea water resulting from the astronomic tide
combined with the storm surge.
Hurricanes / Cyclones
 Typhoons or hurricanes are tropical revolving storms.
The are called cyclones, when they occur in the Indian
Ocean area.
 It is low-pressure systems or depressions around which
the air circulates in an anti-clockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere, but in a clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere.
 The speed of the circulating air may exceed 33 metres
per second near the earth’s surface.
Tropical Cyclone
Strong Winds Storm Surge Heavy Rain

Sea Level Rise
Damage to Flooding
Structures
Loss of Life
Destruction of Crops
28
29
30Oct-9gmt
Oct-3gmt
Oct-6gmt
Oct-3gmt
Oct-6gmt
Oct-9gmt
SUPER CYCLONE
OVER ORISSA
COAST
INSAT IMAGES
SHOWING THE
CYCLONE MOVEMENT
DURING 28 OCT TO
30 OCT, 1999
…...AND THE AFTERMATH

• NEARLY 3.75 LAKH Ha. INUNDATED
• ROAD, POWER AND COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS SEVERELY AFFECTED IN 10
COASTAL DISTRICTS
Coastal management and GIS

 Most coastal data and information are “spatial”
 Applying GIS to ICZM makes sense for:
 Integration/analysis of larger and richer databases
 Quality control over data and information products
 Modelling and simulation of coastal processes
 Scenario testing of management options
 Decision support - including rapid response to
disaster
 Communication and sharing of ideas and
viewpoints
Benefits of GIS for Coastal Management

 Ability to integrate data of various types from different
sources.
 Enhanced capacity for data exchange among various
disciplines.
 Ability to process and analyse data more effectively
and efficiently.
 Ability to model, test and compare alternative
scenarios on the real world system
 Facility for efficient updating of data
 Ability to handle large data volume of different format.
Coastal GIS presents many challenges

 Working with three spatial dimensions
 Working with temporal data and dynamic
processes
 Great differences in spatial and temporal scale
 Fuzzy boundaries and difficulties of defining
objects
 Lack of coastal data model
Coastal GIS presents many challenges

 Coastal GIS not “mature” technology
 Support from the commercial sector slow to
emerge (but growing)
 Coastal managers and scientists not (yet) a
major lobbying group in the GIS industry
Access to data
 Cannot always be gathered because of
Costissues
Security/ sensitivity issues
Time series data
 If data are available, are they in a suitable form?
Some selected coastal marine applications

of remote sensing
Erosion/accretion along Kakinada Coast

Salt water intrusion along Gulf of Cambay

Well locations data pertaining to parameters like Total Depth (TD), Static Water Level (SWL), Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS), Carbonate (C03), Bi-Carbonate (HC03) and Chloride (Cl) around Bhavnagar district have been
collected from Gujarat Water Resources Development Corporation (GWRDC), Gandhinagar, Gujarat for the
year 1983 to 2003 in every five years interval for pre-monsoon (May) and post-monsoon (October) period.
Salt water intrusion along Gulf of Cambay

Strom Surge Risk Zonation at Orissa Coast

Cyclone Shelters at Orissa Coast

Potential Fishing Zone
Thermal
fronts
indicating
fishing zones
Tsunami waves
 Tsunami Japanese word for ‘ Harbor wave’
 A series of waves of extreme length and period triggered by a
sudden displacement of the sea floor: seismic activity or
volcanic eruption
 The wave travels outwards in all directions from the source area
with speeds of over 500 km/hr
 Still it can have a velocity of over 50 km/hr and a height of 30 m
at the coast
 Several waves may follow each other at intervals of 15 - 45
minutes
Pre and post Tsunami image

of Bande Aech Region,
Indonesia
 Satellite remote sensing data is also very helpful for finding out inundations
due to tsunami. Penetration of water body because of tsunami towards land
can be easily traced from suitable remote sensing data.
 The inundation line derived from ground survey can be superimposed over
the taluk or village map using GIS to have an idea about the affected
agricultural areas, human population and infrastructure.
The extent of inundation of seawater

depends on earthquake parameters,
nearshore bathymetry, beach profile,
land topography and velocity of
tsunami waves and their frequency.
Due to these parametric variations, the
inundations varied from one location
to the other.
Tsunami inundation map around Nagapattinam

area, Tamilnadu, India
Email-mitra@iirs.gov.in
Tel-0135-2524181
Geospatial Technology
for
Urban & Regional Planning
Pramod Kumar
Group Head, URSD
Dehradun
CONTENTS
 Some definitions
 Importance of Urban Planning
 Innovative Technologies for Urban Planning
 Data required for Urban Planning
 Some aspects of Geospatial Technology
 Datasets available for Urban & Regional Planning
 Upcoming Geospatial Technology for Urban Planning
 Geospatial Applications in Urban Planning
 Geospatial Appl. in Urban Development Programs of GoI
 Spatial Data Cube of Urban Environs
 Geospatial data needs for Future Urban Planning
2
DEFINING URBAN & REGIONAL AREAS

Urban: characterized by higher population density and
infrastructure in comparison to areas surrounding it.
It may be cities, towns or conurbations excluding
rural settlements.
a) All statutory places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment
board or notified town area committee, etc.
b) A place satisfying the following three criteria:
i. a minimum population of 5,000,
ii. at least 75% of male working population engaged in non-
agricultural pursuits, and
iii. a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
City/town with population of 100,000 and above. Census of India (2001)
REGION: Any portion of earth's surface where physical

conditions are homogeneous. It ranges from a single
feature region to compage, depending on criteria
used for delineation. (Woolfgang & Joerg) 3
URBAN AREAS: TYPES

Statutory Towns (ST): All places with a municipality,
corporation, cantonment board, notified town area
committee, etc.
Census Towns (CT): All villages with a minimum
population of 5,000 persons in preceding Census, at least
75% of male main working population engaged in non-
agricultural activities and a population density of at least
400 persons per sq. km.
Urban Agglomerations (UA): A continuous urban
spread comprising one or more towns and their adjoining
out growth(s).
Out Growths (OG): Areas around a core city or town
e.g., Railway colony, Univ. campus, Port area, etc. lying
outside town limit.
Source: India - Census of India 2011 & Primary Census Abstract
URBAN UNITS IN INDIA

Urban Unit 2001 Census 2011 Census
1. Towns: 5,161 7,935
(a) Statutory Towns 3,799 4,041
(b) Census Towns 1,362 3,894
2. Urban Agglomerations 384 475
3. Out Growths (OGs) 953 981
Source: Census of India
2011 2030
 31% population  40% population
 63% of GDP  75% of GDP
 80% of Urban India of 2030 yet to be built
 A new city of Chicago dimensions to be built every year
IMPORTANCE OF URBAN PLANNING

Urban areas
 Engines of growth, provide services & economies of scale
 Contribute significantly in country’s economy and
employment
 Pull factor
Issues with Urban Areas
 Lack of open space
 Inadequacy of infrastructure
 Overcrowding, congestion
 Mushrooming of slums (61.8 million in 2001)
 Lack of drinking water and sanitation
 Insufficient solid waste disposal
 Poor environmental quality
Needs timely and updated geospatial information for
better management and planning of available resources…
INNOVATIVE TECH. FOR URBAN PLANNING

 REMOTE SENSING
‐ Range of satellite data available: IRS series (Resourcesat, Cartosat,
RISAT, etc.), Worldview, Sentinel, Quickbird, Geoeye…
 PHOTOGRAMMETRY
‐ Areal
‐ Digital (Cartosat-1, Pleiades, ALOS PALSAR, SPOT-5...)
‐ Close range Photogrammetry
 LiDAR-Terrestrial Laser Scanner
 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
‐ Facilitates data generation, integration and analysis
 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
‐ Facilitates geo-referencing, asset mapping..
 UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE (UAV)- mapping of urban areas
 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)- underground utilities, etc.
 …
DATA REQUIRED FOR URBAN PLANNING

Commercial Residential
 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
∙ Land use/ land cover
∙ Road Infrastructure….
 LEGAL FRAMEWORK
∙ Master Plan
∙ Govt. policies…..
(a) (b) (c)
 SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING Interpretation key:

Shape, Size, Pattern, Tone, Texture,
∙ Types of developments: Association…
a) HIG, b) MIG & c) LIG & squatter….
 FISCAL MANAGEMENT
∙ Taxation: Unit area method…
Why should we use Geospatial Technology for

Urban & Regional Planning ?
1. Wealth of information
2. Advantages of digital data
3. Urban and regional information extraction
4. Planners & Engineers can use spatial query and mapping functions
of GIS to analyze existing situations
5. Identify behavior of a land over a specified time
6. Data integration..
Reflectance Curve
SOME ASPECTS OF GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGY
Resolution (Spatial, Spectral, Radiometric and Temporal)

Bands (Panchromatic/ Multispectral/ Hyperspectral)
Date of Pass (Single/ Multi-date)
Scale (local/regional perspective)
Band Combination [False Colour Composite (FCC), Natural Colour
Composite (NCC)]
Image Interpretation/ Classification (Supervised/ Unsupervised)

Data Merging & GIS
Change Detection
10
REQUIREMENTS FOR URBAN MAPPING

 Spatial Resolution: higher spatial resolution desirable
as most of urban areas are densely built and features are
comparatively small in size.
 Minimum of four pixels within an object to identify
 Role of shape, size, texture, orientation, pattern, shadow, association, etc.
 Land use vs. land cover.
 Spectral Resolution: Multispectral data enhances

ability to discern features but interpreter’s intervention is
must to discriminate among various urban features.
 Hyperspectral data to distinguish urban features
 Temporal Resolution: e.g., land use transformations,
urban sprawl, change in socio-economic characteristics.
 Radiometric Resolution: enhances capability to
distinguish features and interpretation
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
 HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION (<= 4m)

‐ GeoEye-1, WorldView-1, WorldView-2, QuickBird, IKONOS,
FORMOSAT-2, ALOS, CARTOSAT-1, CARTOSAT-2, 2A, 2B,
SPOT-5, IRS-P6 LISS-IV, etc.
 MEDIUM SPATIAL RESOLUTION (4 m - 30 m)

‐ Resourcesat, LANDSAT, ASTER, etc.
 LOW SPATIAL RESOLUTION (30 m - > 1000 m)

‐ Resourcesat AWiFS, SeaWiFS, GOES, Oceansat OCM, etc.
Source: Yang, C., Wong, D., Miao, Q. and Yang, R. eds., 2010.
Advanced Geo-Information Science. CRC Press.
Improvements in Spatial/ Spectral Resolutions of IRS

Sensors: Delhi and its Environs
IRS – OCM 360 meters IRS – WIFS 188 meters IRS – LISS-I 76 meters IRS – LISS-II 36 meters
IRS – LISS-III 23 meters IRS – PAN 5 meters PAN 1 meter

13
URBAN APPL.: ISRO’S PRESENT & FUTURE SATELLITES

Operational/ Past Future
RESOURCESAT-2 CARTOSAT-1
2.5m PAN stereo
HRSAT NISAR
LISS-3, LISS-4, AWiFS
Joint Mission with JPL/NASA
Constellation of 3 satellites
(April, 2011) • PAN (1 m, 15 km swath) Payloads

(May, 2005) • Mx (1.9/3.84 m , 15 km swath ) • L & S Band SAR
Orbit : 660 km
RISAT-1 Orbit : 747 km
C-Band SAR CARTOSAT-2 Local time: 0930 hrs Local time: 0600 hrs
0.8 m PAN
GISAT - 1 RESOURCESAT- 3 & 3A

Continuity for Resourcesat-2A
Geosynchronous Orbit
(April, 2012) • ALISS-3:10m & 12m, 925 km, 5
(Jan, 2007) • HR Mx VNIR : 50m; SWIR: 1.5 Km Bands, ATCOR: 240m, 0.4-1m, ,
Onwards • HYSI VNIR: 320m; WIR : 192m 10 bit)
RESOURCESAT-2A Orbit : 36000 km

Orbit : 795 km
LISS-3, LISS-4, AWiFS Every 30 min
Local time: 1030 hrs
CARTOSAT-3
VHR Panchromatic, RISAT-1A RS SAMPLER- 3S & 3SA
Multispectral Imaging Continuity for RISAT-1 High Res. Stereo imaging
(Dec., 2016) PAN Fore & AFT
• PAN (0.25 m, 16 km swath)
• C-Band SAR APAN: 1.25m, 60Km
• Mx (1m, 5 km swath) Mx: 2.5m, 60Km, 4 Bands
Orbit : 450 km Orbit : 536 km
Orbit : 630 km
Local time: 1030 hrs Local time: 0600 hrs
Local time: 1030 hrs 14
HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE DATA
Satellite Sensor No. of Bands Spatial Resolution [m] Archive from

Cartosat-3 MX 4 0.25/ ~1 2019
CartoSat-2E HRMX 4 2.0 2017
CartoSat-2D PAN, XS 1 0.65 2017
WorldView-4 PAN, XS 1, 4 0.31, 1.24 2016
WorldView-3 PAN 1 0.31 2014
SPOT-6 PAN/NAOMI MS 1, 4 1.5/6 2013
KOMPSAT-3 MS 4 2.8 2012
KOMPSAT-3 PAN, XS 1, 4 0.7, 2.8 2012
SPOT-6 PAN, XS 1, 8 2.0, 8.0 2012
Pléiades 1A , 1B MS – HiRI 4 2.8 2011
WorldView-2 PAN, MS 1, 8 0.46, 1.84 2009
GeoEye-1 PAN, MS 1, 4 0.46, 1.84 2008
Cartosat-2, 2A, 2B PAN 1 0.8 2007
EROS-B EROS B 1 0.7 2006
KOMPSAT-2 PAN 1 1 2006
ALOS (Stereo) PRISM 1 2.5 2006
Cartosat-1 ( Stereo) PAN 1 2.5 2005
FORMOSAT-2 PAN/ XS 1, 4 2, 8 2004
OrbView-3 PAN 1 1 2003
Resourcesat-1,2 LISS-IV 3 5.8 2003
OrbView-3 PAN, MS 1, 4 1, 4 2003
QuickBird PAN, MS 1, 4 0.61, 2.4 2001
EROS-A EROS A 1 2 2000
WorldView-1 PAN, XS 1, 4 0.82, 3.28 1999
IKONOS PAN, XS 1, 4 1, 4 1999
DETAILS OF SOME HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITES
IKONOS Cartosat-2/2B Quickbird Worldview-1 Worldview-2 GeoEye-1

Launch Sep 2, Jan 12, 2007 Oct 18, 2001 Sep 18, 2007 Oct 8 , 2009 Nov., 11, 2016
1999 July 12, 2010
Pixel size PAN – 1m PAN – 0.8 m PAN -0.61 m PAN – 0.5m PAN – 0.46m PAN- 0.31 m
MX – 4 m MX - 2.44 m MX – 1.84m MX- 1.24 m
Swath 11 km 9.6 km 16.8 km 17.6 km 16.4 km 13.2 km
Quantisation 11 bit 10 bit 11 bit 11 bit 11 bit 11 bit
Stereo Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Acquisition
Sources:
1. http://www.eurosense.com/documents/our-expertise/spaceborne/satellite-data-sources/very-high-
resolution-optical-imagery.xml?lang=en-gb
2. https://dg-cms-uploads-
production.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/document/file/196/DG2017_WorldView-4_DS.pdf
3. …
VERY HIGH SPATIAL RESOLUTION DATA

Satellite Spatial Spectral Radiometric Revisit time Coverage/ Price
Resolution bands Resolution
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites/ Sensors
Cartosat-1 2.5 m Pan, 10 5 (Revisit) 27.5 X 27.5 km
Stereo (Ortho): Rs. 6450
Cartosat-2 0.8 m Pan 10 5 (Revisit) 9.6 X 9.6 km
(Ortho): Rs. 2890
https://www.nrsc.gov.in/sites/default/files/inline-images/Satellite_Data_Price_List.pdf
Foreign Satellite/Sensors (archived)

IKONOS MS 3.2 m 4+1 11 <3 (Revisit) MS: $10 per sq.km
Pan 0.8 m Pan: $10 per sq.km
World view 1,2,3 MS 1.24 m 8+1 11 <3.7(Revisit) MS: $17.5 per sq.km
Quick Bird MS 2.4 m 4+1 11 <3.5(Revisit) MS: $ 17.5 per sq.km
Pléiades-HR 1A Pan 0.5 m 4+1 8 26 Pan: $12.5 per sq.km
Pléiades-HR 1B MS 2 m MS : $ 12.5 per sq.km
http://www.landinfo.com/satellite-imagery-pricing.html
17
DATASETS FOR URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING..

Space based Data & Information Portals
Satellite Imagery
 Indian Earth Observation Portal BHUVAN (www.bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)
 USGS (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/)
 NASA (https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/)
Land and Water Resources
 Bhuvan (www.bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in)
 India-WRIS portal (www.india-wris.nrsc.gov.in)
 BIS Portal (www.bisindia.gov.in)
 IBIN Portal (www.ibin.co.in)
 https://gisgeography.com/best-free-gis-data-sources-raster-vector/
Disaster Management Support
 DMS-DSC Portal (www.dsc.nrsc.gov.in/)
 National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM)
(www.ndem.nrsc.gov.in)
 http://www.gisresources.com/natural-disasters/
Meteorology & Oceanography
 MOSDAC www.mosdac.gov.in/
 http://www.worldclim.org/
 http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~bodo/TRMM/ …………. 18
UPCOMING GEOSPATIAL TECH. FOR URBAN PLANNING

LiDAR MICROWAVE R.S. HYPERSPECTRAL R.S.
Toronto, Canada
Classified Building Points
Classification and Modeling Results
Satellite images: (a) Hyperion (b) ALI and (c) IKONOS

Urban Suitable spectral
Skyline Of Toronto Material configuration
Brick 1658:1718:1728 and
1335:1476:1486
• LiDAR data- Good source for RISAT-1 FRS-1 image
Concrete 1123:1143:1153 and
3D models of urban areas.  Building footprint, land use, roof 1002:1073:1083
• Extracted building heights- building height, etc. Road

surface
688:699:709 and
658:719:729
Accurate within 0.2 m - 1 m. Bare soil 688:719:729 and
2031:2041:2051
THERMAL REMOTE SENSING Sand 992:1083:1093
SWIR Spectral Library

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1050 1550 2050
Concrete roof
Bare soil
Dataset used: LANDSAT-7 ETM+, Terra ASTER (Aster level-1B, Sand
LANDSAT-7 ETM+ level-1G) 19
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)

 GPR (also known as Ground Data Logger/Viewer
Electronic device
Probing Radar/Geo-radar) is a non- records data and
invasive geophysical technique for displays on monitor
sub-surface exploration. Antenna
 GPR sends EM energy through a Transducer for
transmission and
Transmitter Antenna, and reception of
transmitted energy gets reflected electromagnetic waves
based on Dielectric Contrast D = (5.9t)/sqrt of (Er)
between subsurface layers. D = depth of target (in)
 Operates in specific frequencies t = wave travel time (nanosec)
5.9 = a constant incorporating speed of light and
ranging from 15 MHz to 2 GHz. unit conversions
Er = dielectric constant of subsurface material
Frequency Depth of penetration Material Er
Air 1
100 MHz 20m Pure water 81
200 MHz 7m Fresh water (ice) 4
270 MHz 6m Granite (dry) 5
Clay (saturated) 8-12
400 MHz 4m Sand (dry) 4-6
900 MHz 1m Sand (saturated) 30
1600 MHz 0.5m
BAND COMBINATION- GREEN
21
BAND COMBINATION- RED
22
BAND COMBINATION- INFRARED
23
BAND COMBINATION- FALSE COLOUR COMPOSITE (FCC)
Superior interpretation quality…
24
BAND COMBINATION- NATURAL COLOUR COMPOSITE (NCC)
Product relevant for common users… but inferior interpretation quality…

R = XS2, G = (3 XS1 + XS3)/4 B = (3 XS1 - XS3)/4
25
HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGE- EDGE ENHANCED
Image edge enhanced… Object boundary appears sharper…
26
HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE- RESAMPLING METHOD
Image resampling methods… Nearest Neighbourhood (NNB)… Good for

features extraction digitally…
27
HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGE- RESAMPLING METHOD
Image resampling methods… Cubic Convolution… for visual image

interpretation…
28
HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE IMAGE- TEMPORAL
5/4/2003 26/11/2010 23/02/2015

Temporal Images for Change Detection.. Stages of urbanisation…
29
RELATIONSHIP OF PLANNING SYSTEM
Source: URDPFI Guidelines

PLANNING LEVELS vs. SCALE OF MAPPING
Level of Macro-level (Regional Meso-level (District/ Micro-level (Project, Micro-

Planning & Perspective) Development) watershed, Village)
Low resolution (> 30 M) Medium resolution (4 m – 30 m) High resolution (0.6 m – 4 m)
Mapping 1: 50,000 to 1:1M 1:10,000 to 1: 50,000 1:1,000 to 1:5,000
scale
Urban Urban land use at level-1 Urban land use mapping (upto Urban land use mapping (up to
Planning Urban sprawl analysis level-2) level-4)
Transportation network Urban suitability analysis Slum typology
(highways, railways etc.) Mapping of major transport Mapping of street level urban road
network network
Updation of city guide maps Mapping of property parcels
Inputs for infrastructure
development
Utilities and service maps
Population estimation
Source: URDPFI Guidelines 31

SCALE OF PLANNING vs. LULC DETAILS

PERSPECTIVE DEVELOPMENT ZONAL PLANNING PROJECT/SCHEMES
PLANNING PLANNING Level-III (1:4,000 Level-IV
Level-I Level-II (1:12,500) and More) (1:2,000 and More)
(1:50,000)
Built up land Rural
Built up land Residential High rise Apartments
Flats
Medium rise Apartments
Flats
Low rise Apartments
Flats
Row houses
Tenements
Slums
Seasonal
Others
Built up land Industrial Heavy
Light
Others
Built up land Commercial Large
Small
Others
Built up land Recreational Parks
Gardens
Playgrounds
Stadiums
BUILT-UP DENSITY
Planned-high density Planned-low density
Unplanned-high density Unplanned-low density 33

URBAN LAND USE / LAND COVER
Commercial Industrial Transportation
Institutional Residential Auditorium 34

GRID PLAN
Grid plan, grid street plan, or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets
run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. Infrastructure cost for regular grid
patterns is generally higher than for patterns with discontinuous streets.
RADIAL PLAN
Washington
Connaught Place, New Delhi Auroville, Tamil Nadu, India

GEOSPATIAL APPLICATIONS IN URBAN PLANNING
Area Applications
Urban Planning Large scale base maps, Map updation, Infrastructure mapping, Land use, Zonal
Plans, City Development Plans, Space use maps, Urban growth, Urban sprawl,
Suitability analysis, Urban growth modeling…
Inclusive Planning Vulnerability analysis and mapping of informal settlements…
Urban Governance/ Property Taxation, Municipal GIS, Monitoring of urban encroachments,
Municipal Reforms Demographic studies, Urban cadastral studies…
Urban Environment Urban landscape, Urban green spaces, Solid waste disposal management &
Sites selection, Urban Heat island, Urban pollution, Micro-climate, Solar
potential, Health GIS…
Heritage Applications of Close Range photogrammetry & Terrestrial Laser Scanner,
Conservation Analysis and mapping of Heritage zones…
Urban Design 3D city visualisation using LiDAR, Regeneration and redevelopment analysis,
Rainwater harvesting…
Urban Utility Surface/ subsurface utility mapping, Transportation, Hydro-geom. mapping
Urban Hazard Hazard mapping/analysis, Micro-seismic studies, Urban fires, Urban flood…
High resolution data of Ward No. 10

(Race Course), Dehradun
Year 2001

LANDUSE MAP OF WARD NO 10
URBAN SPRAWL
Percentage growth of Dehradun Urban

100.00
Area ( 1987-2008)
% change
48.93
23.05 31.71
0.00 7.97
1987-1992 1992-1998 1998-2003 2003-2008
300.00 2003-2008
1998-2003
200.00
1992-1998
100.00 1987-1992
till 1987
0.00
A B C D E F G H
URBAN GROWTH MODELING

Various growth scenarios generated for Doon valley in response to different policy measures
BS CGS HGS
Simulated land cover for 2021 under BS, CGS and HGS using ANN based predictive model
Cultivated and Urban built- Non-urban Overall
vegetation PCM up PCM built-up PCM
PCM
Model calibration 98% 95.52% 93.07% 98% Percent Correct Match
(2005) (PCM)= N1*100/N2
Model validation 85.43% 81.3 % 62.85 %. 81% Ratio between correctly
simulated cells and total cells
(2009)
Conclusions
₋ Base line scenario (BS) predicts urban growth under “business as usual” scenario. No development
is allowed within a user defined buffer zone of river channels.
₋ Compact growth scenario (CGS) simulates urban growth if a policy of high density nucleated growth
is pursued. Future development will occur in the west and south direction of existing
development.
₋ Hierarchical growth scenario (HGS) simulates urban growth process if a multi-nucleated growth is
promoted, this will result in a hierarchy of urban settlements with the most prominent urban
centre coming up in west of the study area. 41
SHADOW IN HIGH RESOLUTION IMAGES
Shadows in QuickBird imagery tan (Sun Elevation) = Height of Object

Length of shadow
SPACE USE
 Cities are expanding in vertical
dimensions.
 Information essential for planners
‐ character of Space use and extent
 Space Use: applies to Multistoried
buildings
 Different activities on different
storey/ floors
 3D models
‐ Aerial Photographs
‐ High Resolution Stereo Pair
‐ LiDAR
 Ground survey Space Use Survey Map
Commercial 3D SPACE USE MAP
% of No. of
60
Houses
Residential
40
Floor Area Ratio 20
FAR = [TBA / TA ] 0
Where:
G G+1 G+2
FAR = Floor Area Ratio
TBA = Total Built-up Area
Space use
TA = Total Area
% of Residential
PROPERTY TAXATION
SOCIAL SCENARIO
Unit Area Method (UAM) has been used for
property tax assessment.
Unit Area Value
CATEGORY A B C D E F G H
Unit Area Value 630 500 400 320 270 230 200 100
(Rs/sq.meter)
(a) Total area under each housing type

Average plot size = ---------------------------------------
(c) Total no. of houses under each housing type
Types of developments Use Factor (UF), Occupancy Factor (OF),

within city Age Factor (AF), Structure Factor (SF),
(a) HIG colony
(b ) MIG colony
(b) (c) LIG & squatter Annual Tax Value = Covered Area x Unit
development
Interpretation Key: Shape, Size, Pattern, Tone, Texture, Area Value x SF x OF x UF x AF
Association Category
A B C D E F G H
Plotted Flats, group Plotted colonies Institutions, hotels, Farm Religious Govt. Others
colonies, housing, flats, up to 100 sq. m business, towers, houses institutions properties
houses and shops etc. hoardings and industry
shops
DATASETS FOR URBAN PLANNING

National Urban Information System (NUIS)
Scope: Large scale Urban Geospatial database for various levels of Urban
Planning, Infrastructure development and e-governance.
Primary Layers
1. Urban land use No. of Towns – 152 (~56 Sq. km)
2. Physiography
3. Geomorphology
4. Geological Structures
5. Lithology
6. Soil
7. Drainage
8. Surface Water bodies  Urban Geospatial database
9. Road for Urban Local Bodies
10. Rail (ULBs) for Urban Planning,
Metro - 13 towns
11. Canal Infrastructure development
Class I – 70 towns
12. Transportation Nodes and e-governance
Class II – 15 towns
Incorporated Layers  Bhuvan-NUIS based online
Class III – 19 towns
1. Administrative Boundaries Geospatial solution for
Class IV – 17 towns
2. Forest Boundary Master Plan Preparation
Class V – 6 towns
3. Settlement & Village Locations
Class VI – 12 towns
4. City / Town Boundaries Source: http://bhuvan.nrsc.gov.in/gis/thematic/index.php
ROOFTOP SOLAR POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT

 Solar energy equivalent: 5000 TWh received every year in India
(https://mnre.gov.in/solar-systems)
 Rooftop solar potential: technical potential is around 352 GWp
0.75 km2
Land use and Solar Month Solar Insolation in Wh/m2

E = A * r * H * PR Insolation (January) for 2368 buildings in 2016
Energy Generation vs. Requirement
E = Energy (kWh), A = Total solar panel Area (m2), r = Energy Required
solar panel yield or efficiency (%), H = Annual average solar (kWh/day) 7104
radiation on tilted panels (shadings not included), Recovery 254.54%
PR = Performance ratio, coefficient for losses (range between Energy
0.5 and 0.9, default value = 0.75) Generated…
18083
0.53 m vertical accuracy of DSM (10 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
GCPs and 4 check points) Energy kWh/Day
 255% of energy recovery feasible (only 30% of rooftop area considered)

 Daily avg. solar radiation highest for building rooftops (6.41 kWhm−2 ), 5.75 kWhm−2 for
ground surface, lowest for shadow regions.
 Insolation lowest in Dec (2.4 kWh/m2) and highest in July (178 kWh/m2) 46
http://www.eqmagpro.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/1_SolarRooftop_3_IREDA_SolarRooftop_KPopli.pdf
URBAN WATER UTILITY DISTRIBUTION MODELING

• Preparation of water distribution network using geospatial techniques.
• Analysing real situation of water distribution (supply) and demand for water supply zone.
Building Pipeline
Typology Distribution
Household size Location of Reflection patterns obtained from

distribution valves buried object (e.g. pipe or cavity)
using GPR
Darcy-Weisbach Eq. for hydraulics and friction losses

𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2 hi is head loss, L is pipe length, D is pipe
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑋 diameter, V is average velocity, g is 8” Pipe Mild Steel
𝐷 2𝑔 acceleration of gravity and f is friction factor
Energy Usage
EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM: Avg. Kw- Avg. Peak
 Total requirement : Pop * Per capita demand = 102.5 MLD
Effic. hr/m3 Kw Kw
 Total Supply (surface + subsurface) = 80.28 MLD
100 75.00 0.38 10.76
 Demand supply gap = (-) 22.22 MLD
URBAN HEAT ISLANDS

Assessment potential of multispectral and
thermal remote sensing in assessment of
surface temperature and to ascertain the
influence of LU/LC categories and
vegetation density (NDVI) on surface
temperatures/ amplitudes
² Dataset: LANDSAT-7 ETM+, Terra ASTER (Aster

level-1B,LANDSAT-7 ETM+
Wardwise mean surface temperature of Delhilevel-1G)
of ASTER (day time) 18
th
October 2001 (Day time)
Temperature in degree Celsius 46.00
44.00
42.00
40.00
38.00
36.00
34.00
32.00
30.00
1 8 15 22 29 36 43 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 106 113 120 127 134 141
Wards
HYPERSPECTRAL R.S. OF URBAN AREAS

• To develop a spectral library of urban features using ground based analytical spectral device and
signatures comparison with various remote sensing sensors
• Understanding spectral separability of various urban features using continuum removal algorithm
• Deployment of various image reconstruction and various sub-pixel classification techniques for
urban features mapping
Urban Material Suitable spectral configuration
Brick 1658:1718:1728 and 1335:1476:1486
Concrete roof 1123:1143:1153 and 1002:1073:1083
Road surface 688:699:709 and 658:719:729
Bare soil 688:719:729 and 2031:2041:2051
Sand 992:1083:1093
Satellite images: (a) Hyperion (b) ALI and
SWIR Spectral Library (c) IKONOS
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1050 1250 1450 1650 1850 2050 2250
Urban features in IKONOS image before
Concrete roof Bare soil Sand
and after empirical line calibration
Sample points location • Apart from the visible region, the SWIR region can also improve the urban mapping.
• ALI image covers SWIR band configuration and suitable for urban mapping. Though, spatial
resolution remains the limitation.
• IKONOS has large gap between green and red (595 nm-638 nm) and between 695-757 nm.
Distinction between urban features are prominent in these gap regions.
(Source: Sandhya, P., 2011. Revealing the anatomy of urban areas using spectral dimension. Unpublished M.Tech. thesis, IIRS, Dehradun)
URBAN FLOODING IN RECENT PAST

Increasing trends in Urban Flood Disaster in Indian cities in recent years
Mumbai, 2005 Surat, 2006 Guwahati, 2010
Kashmir, 2010 Chennai, 2015 Vadodara, 2019

HYDERABAD FLOODS - 2016

URBAN FLOOD RISK ANALYSIS

 Bhubaneshwar, tops in list of Smart Cities (Jan 29, 2016); urban flooding/ waterlogging
recurring issue in some parts
 Urban floods simulation and estimation of spatio-temporal flood risk, according to
demographic structure and levels of urban development.
 Data used: hourly rainfall (IMD) - 30 years, elevation from airborne LiDAR (334 sq.km, 3-4
m posting), Land use/ land cover from Indian Remote Sensing LISS-IV, ancillary data
 Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) used
Depth of flood water Vulnerability Risk
 House type
 Population Moderat
 Settlement Very low e
type Low High
 Density, etc.
Very
Catchment boundary Planning boundary high Catchment boundary
 Most vulnerable Municipal Wards: No. 4, 15, 20, 21, 26, 27, 46 48, 67 52
 40% area prone to urban flood risk for 20 year return period of extreme rainfall event (297.46 mm/day)
REGIONAL PLANNING OF CHANDIGARH

 Master Plan visualised 1.5 lakhs population in Phase-
1, later to be expanded to accommodate a total of 5
lakhs in Phase-2. However, population already
exceeded 1 M (1,054,686)- Census-2011.
 Chandigarh decadal growth rate 17.2% (2011) down
from 40.3% (2001). Although, population density of
Chandigarh has risen to 9252 per sq. km- Census
"the hand to give and the hand to 2011, second highest in India after Delhi.
take; peace and prosperity, and the
unity of mankind"
 Areas beyond Tricity [Panchkula (in Haryana) and
Mohali (in Punjab)] region, which include contiguous
areas from Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh
and to bring them under a single planning and
development entity, referred as 'Greater Chandigarh
Region' (GCR).
 LeCorbusier’s: Green buffer- 16 km ‘no
development’ zone around chandigarh
53
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT MODEL : GCR 2050

 Predicted urban growth
followed expansion of
existing city along with
development of satellite
towns.
 MLP procedure produced
higher accuracy- 86.12%
(MLP) whereas CA Markov
produced lower accuracy i.e.
81.34%.
 Predicted urban growth was
400.77 sq. km (total area of
periphery control act is
1615.49 sq. km)
Regional Development Model : GCR 2050 54
FLAGSHIP PROGRAMS OF MoHUA, GoI

Smart City Mission: Building 100 smart cities
Uses ICT to be more intelligent and efficient in
use of resources, resulting in cost and energy Planning for:
savings, improved service delivery and quality of
a better Tomorrow
life, and reduced environmental footprint- all a livable today
supporting innovation and low-carbon economy.
AMRUT Mission: Infrastructure upgradation for 500 cities

1. Ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a
sewerage connection;
2. Increase amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained open spaces
(e.g. parks); and
3. Reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for non-
motorised transport (e.g. walking and cycling).
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Towards a cleaner India
1. 100% Door to Door Waste Collection. Wards Achieved: 43,200
2. Waste to Energy. Current Production (Mega Watt): 88.4
3. Waste to Compost. Production for year 2016 (Metric Ton): 1,64,891.6
HRIDAY: Holistic Development of heritage cities
1. Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana. 12 identified Cities:
Ajmer, Amaravati, Amritsar, Badami, Dwarka, Gaya, Kanchipuram, Mathura, Puri, Varanasi, Velankanni and
Warangal.
2. Revitalisation of urban infrastructure for areas around heritage assets
SMART CITY: STRATEGIES

Retrofitting: To make existing area more efficient and livable.
An area consisting of more than 500 acres to be identified by
city in consultation with citizens.
Redevelopment: Replacement of existing built-up environment
and enable co-creation of a new layout with enhanced
infrastructure using mixed land use and increased density.
Redevelopment envisages an area of more than 50 acres,
identified by ULBs in consultation with citizens.
Greenfield: Introduce Smart Solutions in vacant area (more than
250 acres) using innovative planning (e.g. land pooling/ land
reconstitution) with provision for affordable housing, especially
for the poor.
Pan-City : Envisages applications of Smart Solutions to existing
city-wide infrastructure.
URBAN REJUVENATION: SABARMATI RIVER FRONT

(a) (b) (a) Sabarmati River, Ahmedabad
prior to initiation of Sabaramati
River Front Development proposal.
(b) River front after implementation
of Sabarmati River Front
Development (SRFD).
SRFD is a comprehensive
development of both banks of
Sabarmati River from Subash
Bridge to Vasna Barrage, Distance
from Subhash Bridge to Vasna
Barrage is approximately 9 km.
SRFD promotes beautification of
city and creates city level
recreational spaces.
07.02.20 30.11.201
01 7
57
URBAN REDEVELOPMENT: BHENDI BAZAAR, MUMBAI

Bhendi Bazaar
27.02.2000
Transit Building
24.02.2019
Proposed Redevelopment
GREENFIELD DEVELOPMENT: SONGDO-DONG
1984 2000
2019
59
RETROFITTING: DEHRADUN CITY
2003 2012
2019
60
Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana - Urban

Geospatial Component
 Individual house geo-tagged using GPS with photographs.
 Geo-tagged -location on map
-position of house
-coordinates
https://bhuvan-app1.nrsc.gov.in/state/AP_housing/
SMART CITY MISSION

Prime Objectives
 Basic infrastructure,
 Smart solution to make infrastructure and services better
 Area based development.
GIS Applications
 Site Identification, Selection , evaluation, etc.
 Planning, Design & Visualization of cities.
 Construction & Project Management .
 GIS Facility Management (FM) information system
62
ATAL MISSION FOR REJUVENATION AND URBAN TRANSFORMATION (AMRUT)

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs Government of India
Mission mandates a set of 11 Reforms to be implemented for 500 Mission cities
within a period of 4 years.
Thrust Areas
 Water supply,
 Sewerage facilities and septage management, Storm water drains to reduce flooding,
 Pedestrian, non-motorised and public transport facilities, parking spaces and
 Enhancing amenity value of cities by creating and upgrading green spaces, parks and
recreation centers, especially for children, etc.
 Generation of Base Map & Thematic Maps and Urban Database at 1:4,000 scale
 Enabling the formulation of Master Plan
 Capacity Building
Tier-I (Decision Making level) : 3 days duration
Tier-II ( Middle level Officials): 2 weeks duration.
Tier-III (Operators level Officials): 4 weeks duration.
63
HRIDAY:
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana
 GIS based Mapping of cultural

heritage city.
 GIS based mapping of natural
heritage assets.
 Intellectual Access: Digital & GIS
mapping of historical location.
To improve Services:
Use mobile phone technology
Information and Communications
Technology (ICT)
SWACHH BHARAT ABHIYAN
 Development of Apps.
 Able to “geo-tag” photographs.
 Able to upload photographs.
 Citizens may use Apps to

upload real time photo.
 ULBs may see loopholes/ lack

of services and accordingly
improvement by ULBs.
INDICATORS FOR CITY SERVICES AND QUALITY OF LIFE
66
Group on Earth Observations (GEO)

 Evidence-based assessment of human presence on planet Earth.
 Advances in Earth Observation technologies and geospatial data analytics for improving
global awareness on spatial patterns and processes of today’s urbanising world.
GEO Human Planet Initiative Expert Groups
Human Planet Expert Group Institution
Global harmonised definition of cities and European Commission, DG for Regional and Urban
settlements Policy
Global Settlements in Disaster Risk Reduction UNOOSA, UN-SPIDER Program
University of Dublin, World Urban Database and Access
Global Urban Climate and Mitigation Planning
Portal Tool (WUDAPT)
Global updated and historical baseline data on
European Commission, Joint Research Centre
built-up areas
Global high resolution age-structured Univ. of Southampton, WorldPop Project, Flowminder
population maps 2000 - 2020 Foundation
Global Settlements, Infrastructure, and Columbia University, Center for International Earth
Population Data Intercomparison Science Information Network (CIESIN)
Global future population grids including
City University New York, Demographic Research
demography and migration
Global urban metabolism University of Denver, Geography & Environment
Urbanisation dynamics in China and “one belt Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Remote
one road” region Sensing and Digital Earth
University of Twente, Faculty of Geo-Information Science
Capacity building and trainee-ships
and Earth Observation
George Washington University, Center for Urban and
Poverty Mapping
Environmental Research
https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/HPI.php
Group on Earth Observations (GEO)

Atlas of the Human Planet 2016- Mapping Human Presence on Earth
https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/HPI.php
 Four epochs since 1975 and at fine spatial resolution (38 m)
 Areas of higher development intensity are very accurately classified and highly reliable.
Rural areas show low deg. of accuracy, which could be affected
68 by misalignment
between reference data & data under test where built-up land is scattered and rare.
SPATIAL DATA CUBE OF URBAN ENVIRONS
 3% of global land surface under urban areas

(https://www.livescience.com/6893-cities-cover-earth-realized.html)
 Time-series satellite data and Big Earth Data-Cube

offers potential for urban growth monitoring
 Global efforts: Global Human Settlement Layer,
Nightlights data..
 Built-up areas: 379, 552 km2 (1975), 523, 333 km2
(1990), 655, 742 km2 (2000) and 789, 385 km2 (2014)
(https://res.mdpi.com/data/data-04-00035/article_deploy/data-04-00035-v2.pdf?filename=&attachment=1)

User-friendly web graphical user interface for-
1. Time-series satellite images
2. Classified outputs
3. Thematic layers such as built-up, water bodies, green spaces
and land surface temperature
4. Graphs for spatio-temporal analysis
5. Land use/land cover change matrix
6. Urban growth modeling
7. Nighttime data analysis and relationship with socio-economic
data analysis
8. Integration of Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL), Global
Surface Water and development of Urban Informatics Tool box

LULC
Change
Analysis
Urban
Growth
Modeling
Urban Accessibility Map Predicted Map for 2048
Night
Time
Light
Data
Night time Light Data of Bihar Night time Light Area and Sum of Lights GSDP and Consumption of Electricity
User friendly GUI using Open Data Cube URBAN

Architecture for time-series data INFORMATICS
GEOSPATIAL DATA NEEDS FOR URBAN PLANNING- FUTURE
 VHRS (~0.5 m) XS (VNIR, SWIR)

 High res. (1-2 m) multi-band (> 8) red edge band
 High res. triplet stereo (<0.5 m)
 High pt. density LiDAR (10-15 pts./sq. m)/ 10-15 m
footprint full waveform
 High res. X band (~ 1m) multi-look SAR
 Hyperspectral (10 nm) (1-2 m GSD)
 Thermal- high res. (~5 m) thermal with day/ night
capabilities
 Space based navigation system, high-position acc.(~ 1m)
 Urban climate
⁻ Temp. (Thermal band ~100 m res., hourly interval)
⁻ Precipitation (~ 500 m/1 km resolution, 3 hourly interval)
⁻ Total Ozone (~ 500m/ 1 km resolution 3 hourly interval)
REFERENCES
1. Bengt Paulsson, 1992. Urban Applications of Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS
Analysis, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
(http://ww2.unhabitat.org/programmes/ump/documents/ump9.pdf)
2. Qihao Weng (Editor) and Dale A. Quattrochi (Editor) (2006). Urban Remote
Sensing, CRC Press, ISBN-13: 978-0849391996.
3. Xiaojun Yang (Editor), 2011. Urban Remote Sensing: Monitoring, Synthesis and
Modeling in the Urban Environment. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Print ISBN:
9780470749586, Online ISBN: 9780470979563, DOI: 10.1002/9780470979563.
4. URPFI Guidelines (http://moud.gov.in/URDPFI)
Acknowledgement: some case studies have been borrowed from URSD/ IIRS faculty. Their efforts are duly acknowledged.
Remote Sensing and GIS applications

in Water Resources Management
By
Dr. S.P. Aggarwal, FIE
Group Head, Water Resources Department
spa@iirs.gov.in

ISRO, Dept. of Space, Govt. of India
Dehradun
Issues
 17% of World’s Population Declining per
capita availability
 4% of World’s Water Resources 1947: 5200 M3
2017: 1500 M3/ year
 Agriculture Use : Around 80-85% • Over Exploitation
 Efficiency is poor : India 38% Of Ground Water
 Industrial Use : 8-10% • Climate Change:

Increase of Extreme
 Domestic Use: 5-7% Events viz. Floods,
Droughts
• Population Growth
Imaging from Space
 Near real time hydrologic

information
 Temporal Information
 Spatial information
 Synoptic coverage
Remote Sensing provides..

 Precipitation
 Cloud Cover, CTT, CMV, OLR etc.
 Evapotranspiration
 LST, Albedo, LAI, NDVI
 Water Body
 Reservoir, Lake, ponds, flood mapping and monitoring
 Soil Moisture
 Surface Soil Moisture
 Topography
 DEM, Slope, Aspect, Flow Direction, Flow Accumulation
 Water Demand
 Crop Acreage, CWR, IWR
EO Systems and Water Resources
Water
 Optical Resource
Assessment &
Megha tropique
 Microware (C, X, Ku) SARAL
Water Budgeting
 Hyperspectral Stereo Data

Very High
Resolution 2020
RISAT 1 OCM-2
• Multidimensional data
Cartosat- 1/2
IKONOS/QB 2010 Interlinking of
• Modelling High
Resourcesat – 1,2 Rivers
• GIS
Resolution 2008
Irrigation Infrastructure
IRS P3 Mapping and
WiFS monitoring
Moderate OCM-1 2005
Resolution MODIS
Flood mapping and
IRS IC/ID monitoring
Coarse PAN
IRS P2 1996
Resolution Ground Water Snowmelt runoff
IRS IA/IB Prospecting and Glaciers
Landsat
1995
Command Area Monitoring,
Reservoir Sedimentation
1985
Snow melt Run off; Forecast
Glacier Inventory
1980
Potential Ground Water Zones India-WRIS: a host of 108 thematic layers

Rainfall
 Visible band - type of cloud
 Thermal band
 cloud top temperature is calculated
 height of cloud & precipitable clouds
 Microwave : Rain amount & rain rate

INSAT 3D and INSAT 3D R products
INSAT 3D and 3D R Images for Weather
28
29
30Oct-9gmt
Oct-3gmt
Oct-6gmt
Oct-3gmt
Oct-6gmt
Oct-9gmt
…...cloud movement monitoring from Space

• NEARLY 3.75 LAKH Ha. INUNDATED
• ROAD, POWER AND COMMUNICATION

NETWORKS SEVERELY AFFECTED IN 10
COASTAL DISTRICTS
Hydrological Parameters
Precipitation:
Period: 1.5 hours
TRMM:
Launch date: 27 November 1997
TRMM observes global tropics between 35° S
to 35°N latitudes
One active and two passive rain sensors
• Precipitation Radar (PR)
• TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI)
• Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS)
http://www.ntsg.umt.edu/projct/modis
Precipitation:
GPM:
Period: 1.5 hours

Launch date: 26 March 2017
One active and one passive rain sensors :
• Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR)
• GPM Microwave Imager (GMI)
https://pmm.nasa.gov/multimedia/
Precipitation:
IMD :
• Daily Merged Satellite based Rainfall (GPM)
data ( 0.25 x 0.25 degree) Binary File
• Time Scale: Real-time
• GPM data along with Gauge data is utilized
in generating this gridded dataset
• The dataset is outcome of joint work of IMD
and NCMRWF.
Rainfall Dated : 10-12 August,2018

Interlinking………..
WATER BODY MAPPING
Krishna
Reservoir
Velugodu
Reservoir
Application of Remote Sensing in Reservoir Management

Mula
MulaDam
Mula DamOn
Dam on
On
On 23-05-2012
20-10-2011
31-12-2011
24-03-2012
Applications: 1. Reservoir operations, 2. hydel power generation,

3. irrigation water diversion, 4. Drinking water supply
RS Applications in Irrigation Command Area Mapping

Sensor /Spatial Suitability for Mapping
Resolution
AWiFS
This sensor gives high
(56 m × 56 m) coverage and high
temporal resolution so,
Satellites : Resourcesat may be best suitable for
1,2 monitoring crop area and
crop condition
Swath: 740 km
LISS-III This sensor is best
suitable for crop
(23.5 m × 23.5 m) monitoring up to taluk or
village level
Satellites : Resourcesat
1,2
swath: 150 km
I N D I A/Spatial
Sensor N I N S T I T U T E O F R E M O T E S E N S I N G , Suitability
DEHRADU N Mapping
for
Resolution
LISS-IV  Main, Branch.
(5.8m × 5.8 m) Distributary, Minor
Satellites : Resourcesat canal having width
1,2 around 5 m or more
Swath: 23.9 km Field level mapping
CARTOSAT-1 • Main, Branch.

Distributary, Minor,
(2.5m × 2.5 m) Sub-minor canal
having width around
Swath: ≈ 30 km 2 m or more
• Infrastructure
mapping
CARTOSAT-2 and 3 • Main, Branch.

Distributary, Minor,
1m, 65 cm, 25 cm Sub-minor, field
channels canal
having width even
less than 1 m
• Infrastructure
Part of Upper Ganga canal from Space
Can we get better picture ?

IRS 1D Pan(5.8)
Agriculture field boundary

Bhimgauda barrage thru quickbird (65 cm)

Branching of canals
Superpassage
Assessment of Irrigation Potential

Created in using Cartosat Satellite Data
Balance Irrigation
Potential : 16606.14 ha
Accelerated Irrigation Critical Gaps in Canal
Network : 87
Benefit Program (AIBP) India

Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh
• AIBP Phase –I : 53 projects

Gaps in Kangri Lt & Rt Mr at CH: 4.66, 4.96 & 5.59 Km
from 18 sates
• AIBP Phase –II : 50 projects

Field Photographs of Gap in Kangri Lt at CH: 4.66 Km
from 14 sates
• Data Used : Cartosat-1 PAN

Orthorectified Gaps in Ajupura Dy at CH: 4.17 and 4.7 Km
Gaps in Kotra Dy at CH: 15.2, 16.6 & 17.05 Km and in Ahmadpur Mr

at CH:1.42 Km
Satellite Derived Irrigation

CARTOSAT-1 PAN Data data coverage Infrastructure and Irrigation Critical Gaps Mapped
Eastern Ganga Canal Project Command Potential Using Cartosat-1 Data
Area Of Eastern Ganga Canal Command
Gaps in Different Canals mapped using Cartosat-1 data
Gaps in Kangri Lt & Rt Mr at CH: 4.66, 4.96 & 5.59 Km

Gap in Husainpur Mr at CH: 3.04 Km
Field Photographs of Gap in Kangri Lt at CH: 4.66 Km
Gaps in the Jahangirpur Mr at CH: 0.0 and 1.27 Km

Remote Sensing for Watershed

monitoring
INTERMITTENT CONTOUR TRENCHES - VIEWED BY HIGH RESOLUTION SATELLITE
NIPANA MICRO WATERSHED, AKOLA DT. , MAHARASHTRA
Quickbird MSS data after implementationQuickbird PAN data after implementation
Intermittent contour trenches Farm pond

Monitoring of Karkara watershed, Jharkhand
WATER BODIES
IRRIGATED
AGRICULTURE
IRRIGATED
AGRICULTURE
BEFORE PROJECT AFTER PROJECT

1993 1999
Courtesy : IGBP
Flood Inundation
Mapping and Damage
Assessment
Integration of Satellite Image and GIS layer
28
District wise inundation mapping

Flood Layer Village Layer
Integration in
GIS
Marooned Villages
Flood in Marigaon District

Marooned villages in Marigaon district
Inundated area 34,240 ha Villages affected 465
29
Snow Cover mapping and Snow Melt Runoff Modelling
SCA mapping , and experimental Delta SWE estimation RS in NWH

SCA mapping (2000 – till date) • Long term SCA
Mapping using AWiFS
& MODIS data
• Change in snow water
equivalent using
SCATSAT-1 data
(2.25km)
• Weekly time step
• Utilisation: Water
Resources Assessment
ΔSWE Estimation (Oct. 2016 – till date)
Snow cover depletion
15/05/98 15/06/98 12/10/98 28/11/98 04/12/98 14/02/99
25/05/99 25/06/99 14/07/99 27/09/99 28/10/99 22/11/99

September - I
August - II
July - III
Snow Cover Depletion Curves
July - I
zone 10
June - II
May - III zone 9
May - I
April - II
March - III
zone 8
March - I
February - II
zone 7
January - III
January - I
zone 6
December - II
November - III
November - I
90 October - II
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
Snow cover [%]
SRM calculation
The basic equation of SRM model is
Qn+1 = [CSn an (Tn + Tn) Sn+ CRn Pn] A·10000 (1-kn+1)+ Qn kn+1
86400
 T, S and P are variables to be measured or determined each day. CR, CS, lapse
rate to determine T, TCRIT, k are parameters which are characteristic for a given
basin.
As an Example for a basin of an elevation range of 1500 m. It is sliced in three

elevation zones A, B and C of 500 m each, the model equation becomes
Qn+1 = {[cSAn · aAn (Tn + TAn) SAn + cRAn · PAnA]A*+10000

86400
[cSBn · aBn (Tn + TBn ) SBn + cRBn · PBn ] B+* 10000
A
86400
[cSCn · aCn (Tn + TCn ) SCn + cRCn · PCn ]A+ (1-kn+1 )} + Qn ·kn+1
C* 10000
86400
In this project all the model parameters are derived as 10 daily average values and
used to compute the 10 daily average runoff.
Martinec-Rango SRM
240
220
200
180 • Temperature
discharge [m /s]
160 • Precipitation
140 • Snow Cover Area
120 Dv(%)=1.8
estimated
100 real
80
60
40
20
0
June II
July II
August II
September II
October II
November II
December II
January II
February II
March II
April II
May II
June II
July II
August II
September II
October II
November II
December II
Setting up of Hydrological Model for Indian River

Basins
Inputs:
Vegetation
Soil,
Topography
Forcing:
Min. Max. Temp,
Rainfall etc.
VIC Model
Output: Runoff, ET, Soil moisture, Baseflow

National scale: IIRS Initiatives

• 15 years Runoff
potential maps of
India(1991-2005)
• Wet year and dry years

are visible
• Runoff can be
estimated on daily
basis
• ET and soil moisture

can also be simulated
Flood Early warning system
c): Hydrological modeling using WRF-HMS setup

a) Overall approach
b)IIRS Experimental WRF Forecast: 3km resolution, 72 hrs
d) ID model creation and simulation for full basin
http://dms.iirs.gov.in/
Flood inundation d/s of Cheruthoni dam as simulated using MIKE 11
Simulated flood
During Flood
After Flood
Source:http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2018/aug/11/kerala-floods- Source:https://www.mathrubhumi.com/environment/specials/
53500-people-in-relief-camps-water-level-at-idukki-dam-recedes-1856128.html kerala-floods-2018/news/post-flood-cheruthoni-bus-stand-
Water level estimation using Jason-2/Jason-3

Satellites
Convergence of Technologies
GIS
RS Field
Data
GPS
LBS
Internet
Photo-
grammetry
Altimetry

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I N D I A N I N S T I T U T E O F R E M O T E S E N S I N G, D E H R A D U N

Basics of remote sensing

Dr. Manu Mehta

How to collect scientific data?

What is Remote Sensing?

Why Remote Sensing?

• Systematic data collection

Remote Sensing Process

Remote Sensing Process

 Interaction of radiation with target

 Interaction of radiation with atmosphere

What is Electromagnetic Radiation??

There are 2 theories:

EMR propagation as wave

An electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave in that the

Terms associated with wave theory

EMR : particle nature

In 1924, Louis-Victor de Broglie formulated the de

Higher Frequency Lower Frequency

Higher Energy Lower Energy

The light which our eyes - our "remote sensors" - can

Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 m

The infrared region can be divided

The reflected IR covers

The portion of the spectrum

d Ω = dS / r2 (in steradian, Sr)

All the Participants are requested to login in E-CLASS :

2. What are the units of spectral radiance ?

3. Which radiometric quantity would be most suitable to measure for

4. A radiation of wavelength 4 micron falls in which portion of EM

Blackbodies absorb and re-emit radiation in a

Plank’s Law of radiation

Plank’s Law of radiation

Stefan Boltzmann Wien’s Displacement law

How close a real body is to a Black

() = M (material, 0K) / M (blackbody, 0K)

() varies between 0 and 1

EMR interaction with matter

At boundary of Within medium

Reflection Refraction Absorption Scattering

Interaction of EMR with Earth’s surface

Rayleigh Criteria for smooth surface

Why the name signature ??

Physical processes in atmosphere

Atmospheric windows : Spectral regions where the EMR is

Scattering : Redirection of light

Mie 0 to -4 0.1 to 10 m Smoke, haze

Non- 0 > 10 m Dust, fog,

Effect of Atmosphere on Remote sensing

What have we learnt ??

 Definition and Overview of Remote Sensing History and Evolution of Remote

PS : The material used in the presentation has been

 Remote Sensing is the art, science and technology of observing an

Measurement from a distance

It enables us to observe and study nature in ways that would otherwise be

Remote Sensing Process

Ground receiving & Indian Receiving Station at

Sensors and platforms that are used to

Sensors= a device that records EM Energy

History of remote sensing

 Used to record detailed information about the

 In some cases, this can be used to better

 Sensors may be placed on a ladder,