MEASUREMENT OF STRESS BY

X-RAY DIFFRACTION
PRESENTED BY
M.NANDHINI
1761032
INTRODUCTION
• X-ray diffraction(XRD) is a well established and accurate
method to investigate residual stresses on the surface layers
of the crystalline materials.
• X-ray diffraction for residual stress measurement is relatively
cost effective and widely available.
• In x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement, the strain in
the crystal lattice is measured, and the residual stress
producing strain is calculated, assuming a linear elastic
distortion of the crystal lattice.
• To determine the stress, the strain in the crystal lattice must
be measured for at least two precisely known orientations
relative to the sample surface.
• X-ray diffraction residual stress measurement is applicable to
materials
 that are crystalline
 relatively fine grained
 produce diffraction of any orientation of the sample surface
 that elastic constants are known.
• X-ray diffraction residual stress measurement is unique in that
macroscopic and microscopic residual stresses can be determined
nondestructively.
• Micro and macro stresses can be determined separately by
measuring the peak position and width.
MEASURMENT OF STRESS
DIFFRACTION BASED METHODS

• The strain is measured using Bragg’s law and calculation of the

stress is done with Hooke’s law together with elastic modulus(E)
and Poisson’s ratio(ν).
• Stress cause small changes in d and shifts diffraction angle.
• Any stress including applied or residual stresses, induces a strain
which corresponds to changes in lattice spacing.
• Stress is then calculated by measuring lattice distance with
multiple tilt angles and plotting the results as d vs. sin²x graph,
where d is the measured lattice spacing and x is the tilt angle.
• The width of the peak is measured as Full Width at Half
Maximum which illustrates micro stresses.
Uniform strain shifts the diffraction peak position.
Non-uniform strain can alter both the peak shape and position.

Residual stresses are determined from the diffraction data by calculating

the strain from the diffraction peak position.
RESIDUAL STRESS DETERMINATION – X-RAY
DIFFRACTION
• A collimated x-ray beam of wavelength(λ) is focused onto a
specimen and the number of x-ray diffracted (diffracted intensity)
is counted as the angle between the x-ray tube and x-ray detector
(θ) is changed.
• This allows a plot of diffracted intensity versus 2θ to be formed.
• From these peaks the lattice spacing, which will vary from stressed
to unstressed materials, can be determined using Bragg equation.
• In this a correct specimen preparation is important.
• Also sample surface is protected from the secondary abrasion ,
corrosion, or etching.
TWO-EXPOSURE METHOD
Principle of x-ray diffraction residual stress measurement

A) Ψ=0 B)Ψ=Ψ (SAMPLE

ROTATED THROUGH SOME KNOWN ANGLE Ψ).
D- X-RAY DETECTOR; S- X-RAY SOURCE; N- NORMAL TO THE SURFACE
Ψ- ANGLE BETWEEN THE NORMAL TO THE DIFFRACTING PLANES AND THE SAMPLE SURFACE.
 Bragg’s law, nλ=2dsinθ where,
• λ- wavelength(m); n-constant;θ- Diffraction angle
• d- interplanar spacing between crystallographic planes(m).
dᴪᵩ ─ d₀ = (1+ν) σᵩ.sin²Ψ
d₀ E
• Where , dᴪᵩ - interplanar spacing in the direction defined by Ψ
and φ
• d₀ - interplanar spacing for unstressed material
• ν,E – Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus(Pa)
• σᵩ - Surface stress defined by angle φ

m = 1+ν σᵩ.d₀
E
MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESS
• A relation between broadening produced and non-uniformity of
strain is obtained by differentiating Bragg’s law,
• B=∆2θ=-2∆d tanθ, B is extra broadening
• Derivation of basic equation
• σy= F/A, Ԑy=∆L/L= (Lf -L₀)/L₀
• σy= E Ԑy, Ԑx= Ԑz = (Df -D₀)/D₀
• Due to increase in length, D decreases.
• If the material is isotropic,
• Ԑx =Ԑz =-νԐy where ν is Poisson’s ratio.

Stress- strain representation

 Ԑz= (dn-d₀)/d₀ where
dn is interplanar spacing of the planes
under stress
d₀ is same in absence of stress
σy can written as

Sample already contains residual stress its

d value in unstrained condition d₀ is
unknown.
So consider biaxial stress condition.
Contd…
• Stress perpendicular to free surface is zero
• σ₁,σ₂,σ₃ are three principal stresses
• σ₃=0,however Ԑ₃ ≠0
• eqn 1

Ԑ₃ is estimated by measuring spacing d.

eqn 2

Only sum of principal stresses can be obtained, but d₀ is required.

σᴪ is residual stresses its value is to be measured.
Measurement of σᴪ

• This is done by two measurements, viz. one that of strain Ԑ₃, and
the other Ԑᴪ along OB, usually chosen to be 45° to the surface
normal.
Contd…
• Ԑ₃ is derived from spacing dn of planes parallel to the surface.
• Ԑᴪ is derived from spacing di of planes whose normal is inclined
along OB.

Plane spacing d at two different settings

From the theory of elasticity of isotropic bodies, it is known that
Ԑᴪ = 1/E{σᵩ(1+ν)Sin²Ψ-ν(σ₁+σ₂)} eqn… 3
 Contd…
• Subtracting eqn. 3&1 we get
Ԑᴪ-Ԑ₃=1/E{σᵩ(1+ν) Sin²Ψ}
• Substituting for Ԑᴪ-Ԑ₃,we get

Since di, d₀ and dn are nearly equal to each other (di -dn) is small
compared to d₀, d₀ is thus substituted with dn
WILLIAMSON HALL METHOD
• Scherrer has derived an expression for broadening of x-ray
diffraction peaks due to only small cystallite sizes.
• Bsize = kλ
• L cosθ
• k - scherrer constant
• λ – x-ray wavelength
• L- crystallite size
• θ- Bragg’s angle
• B- FWHM
FWHM - Full Width at Half Maximum
The width of the diffraction peak in radians, at a height half-way
between background and the peak maximum.
 Contd…
• The lattice strain in the material also causes broadening of the
diffraction peaks, which can be represented by the relationship
• Bstrain = Ƞ tanθ, where Ƞ is the strain in the material.
• From this equation it is clear that peak broadening is due to
crystallite size and lattice strain is increasing rapidly with
increasing θ.
• The width of the diffraction peak is considered as sum of the
widths due to crystallite size and lattice strain
• Br = Bsize + Bstrain
• Br = (kλ /L cosθ)+ Ƞtanθ
• Mutiplying this equation by cosθ we get
• B cosθ = (kλ/L) + Ƞsinθ
 Contd…
• The above equation is the Williamson- Hall equation.
• A plot is drawn with sinθ along the x-axis and B cosθ along y-
axis.

• Plot of B cosθ against sinθ indicating that the intercept (kλ/L)

and slope(Ƞ) can be used to calculate the crystallite size and
the lattice strain.
 Contd…
• The generalized Hook’s law referred to that strain is directly
proportional to the stress with constant of proportionality as
young’s modulus.
• Williamson –Hall equation is modified by substituting Hooke’s law
as
• B cosθ = (kλ/L) + (σsinθ /E)
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION
• Measurement of surface residual stresses on the raceway of ball
and roller bearings.
• Study of alteration of residual stresses and percent cold work
distributions caused by stress-relieving treatment or forming.
• Measurement of surface and subsurface residual stresses
parallel and perpendicular to a weld fusion line as a function of
distance from the weld.
• Determination of maximum residual stresses caused by
machining.
REFERENCES
https://www.stresstech.com/en/knowledge/articles/stresstech
-bulletin-12-measurement-methods-residual-stresses/
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/2251-7235-6-6
Crystallite sizel XRD.pdf- Research Gate
https://sites.google.com/site/temfemguy/research/residual-str
ess-in-aluminium-forgings/residual-stress-determination---x-ra
y-diffraction
?
X-ray residual stress techniques by Paul S. Prevey, Lambda
Research.
 Characterization of materials by P.K.Mitra., page no.93-97
THANK YOU