Fincham & Rhodes: Principles of

Organizational Behaviour: 4e

Chapter 1: Learning
•What is learning?
•Theories of learning
•Cognitive approaches to learning
•Learning from training
 Why study learning?
Recently:
• Shift from tangible to intangible assets
• Need to respond to changing context

Learning theories help:

• Develop effective training programmes
• Identify competence (=basis for training)
• Describe work
 Learning & Training

• Learning: ‘the cognitive and physical

ability giving rise to a relatively permanent
change in knowledge, skill or attitude’

• Training: the organised effort to assist

learning through instruction and practice
 Stimulus–response theories I: classical
conditioning

Conditioning = a way of learning, where the presence of a

stimulus elicits a specific/ desired response

Phase 1: Reflex behaviour

(i.e. what normally happens)

UCS UCR
(meat (salivating)
powder)
 Stimulus–response theories I: classical
conditioning
Phase 2
Learning Trial: we introduce a conditioned
stimulus in the previous process (i.e. phase 1) and
we get the same response

CS UCS UCR
(Bell) (Meat (Salivation)
powder)
 Stimulus–response theories I: classical
conditioning
Phase 3
Learned Behaviour: The UCS is removed and we still get
the initial response (UCR). However, now it is a CR
because it is caused by a CS.

CS CR
(Bell) (Salivation)

A relatively permanent change (i.e. learning) has occurred.

 Stimulus–response theories I: classical
conditioning
• Extinction: the CR weakens, due to the long-term
absence of the UCS
• Generalization: the organism’s capacity to
respond similarly to similar stimuli
• Discrimination: the organism’s capacity to
respond differently to similar stimuli
• Pattern: learned, fixed thoughts, feelings or
behaviours that characterize the way we respond.
A possible result of conditioning.
 Stimulus–response theories I: classical
conditioning
Implications for learning and training in
organisms
• The problem: Patterns inhibit us from finding new,
improved ways to deal with distressful situations
• The cause: similar experiences over years/single
extremely traumatic event
• Result for work: powerful, conditioned, negative feelings
= an obstacle to a) working efficiently, b) learning
• A solution: make the individual aware of their patterns
through training. Suggest new ways.
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
• Operant = a unit of behaviour
• B. F. Skinner: ‘the environment shapes an
individual’s behaviour by maintaining
certain responses and suppressing others’
• Reinforcement (negative & positive) = the
shaping mechanism
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
Hard Hard Work Satisfaction
Work Satisfaction (Operant) Pay rise
(Pleasant
Stimulus)
Reinforcement (+/-)

The operant (hard work) is reinforced by the increase in pay.

This is a positive reinforcement because it increases the
likelihood of the pleasant stimulus
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning

Authority Acquiescence Anxiety

Figure Anxiety (Operant) Avoid
(Unpleasant Boss
Stimulus)
Reinforcement (+/-)

The operant (acquiescence) is reinforced by the reduction in

anxiety that the individual is feeling. This is a negative
reinforcement because it removes/ reduces the unpleasant
stimulus, i.e. anxiety.
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
Both positive & negative reinforcement
strengthen the occurrence of a response:
Case A: the individual is reinforced to work hard since
their satisfaction (pleasant stimulus) goes up
Case B: the individual is reinforced to agree with their boss
because their anxiety (unpleasant stimulus) goes down.

2 types of learning produced: escape & avoidance

 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning

Shouting to Criticism Never

colleagues (Aversive Stimulus) shout
(Operant) again

The individual in this case is ‘punished’ by their

colleagues and he/she will probably not shout again.
Punishment reduces the likelihood of a response
reoccurring.
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning

Shouting to Colleagues Never

colleagues eliminate communication
shout
(Removal of a pleasant
(Operant) stimulus) again

The individual in this case learns not to shout again

because such behaviour instigates the removal of a
pleasant stimulus, i.e. communication . Omission
reduces the likelihood of a response reoccurring.
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
Both punishment and omission reduce the
likelihood of a response reoccurring:

Case C: the individual stops shouting

because their colleagues criticize them
(punishment)

Case D: the individual stops shouting

because their colleagues cease
communication (omission).
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning

Use reward rather than punishment!

• Indicate the desired behaviour

• Avoid causing anxiety, hostility,
resentment
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement

Intermittent Reinforcement
i.e. reinforcement occurs occasionally

is more powerful than

Continuous Reinforcement
i.e. reinforcement occurs continuously

With intermittent reinforcement, behaviour persists in the

absence of the reinforcement
 Stimulus–response theories II: operant
conditioning
Intermittent Reinforcement (R) Schedules

Fixed–ratio Variable- Fixed- Variable-

Schedule ratio interval interval
Schedule Schedule Schedule
R occurs R occurs R occurs at The interval
after a given after an regular between R
number of unknown intervals varies around
responses (variable) regardless of an average
number of responses value
responses
Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour

Technology of behaviour:

environments that systematically

strengthen desired responses while
weakening the less desirable ones

a) Behaviour Modification, b) Programmed instruction

 Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
Behaviour modification: The attempt to change a behaviour by
manipulating/ adjusting the environment
1. Identify critical behaviours: i.e. behaviours that are
necessary for good performance
2. Base Rates: identify how often the critical behaviour is
occurring
3. Functional Analysis: identify what happens both before and
after the critical behaviour occurs
4. Intervention Strategy: ‘tie up’ critical behaviours with
rewards
5. Systematic Evaluation: does the critical behaviour happen
more often than the original base rate?
 Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
Is behaviour modification effective in the
workplace?
•The intervention is generalized and affects
functionally related behaviours

Ex. Targeted behaviour = keep better lecture

notes
Non-targeted behaviours that may be
affected are: absenteeism, punctuality
 Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
Continued…
• Behaviour modification is not an easy
process when complex behaviours are
targeted
• Uniform & effective reinforcement is a
task in itself
• Target behaviours go back to normal once
the reinforcement is reduced
• Non-professionals are unlikely to be
suitable to run such a complex task.
 Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
•Programmed • Linear programmes: a
detailed step- by- step
interaction: learning process.
a learning process
where the participant • Branching programmes:
a step- by- step learning
is presented with process. Incorrect answer:
small amounts of answer a set of additional
information (frames) questions
 Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
Advantages Disadvantages
• Allows to specify • Complex to design
terminal performance • Comprehension
and pre-entry • Retention
behaviour
• Easily accessible
• Cost effective
Stimulus-response theories: a technology of
behaviour
Operant theory suggests:
Change in behaviour occurs by linking
responses to environmental outcomes
i.e.
encourage employees to perceive some
relationship between their effort and some
valued reward!
 Cognitive approaches to learning
Humans develop models that define their
interaction with the environment

Skills: factors that contribute to learning &

competent performance

Transferable skills: skills that can be applied

to many jobs and tasks
 Cognitive approaches to learning
• Change in existing model = possible improvement
in performance
• Developmental stages
– Learning affordances
– Categories
– Kinaesthetics
– Constancies
– Invariants in events
– Such developments increase our selectivity of attention
 Skill
•Horizontal dimension: •Vertical dimension:
refers to the organization reflects the hierarchical
of activity over time organization of skills

Skilled individuals:
subroutines are
developed, i.e.
behaviours that are
automatically performed
 Cognitive approaches to learning
Operating programmes: convert models
into behaviours by triggering subroutines

Executive programmes: help select the

most appropriate skill in a situation
 Cognitive approaches to learning
Performance changes when:
• The operating programme develops, i.e.
can trigger new subroutines and thus new
behaviour
• Models of a situation develop

When this process will stop depends on the

individual’s level of motivation.
 Learning from training
Reality:
• Training is ineffective
• Training fails to transfer back to the
workplace
Attention!
• Features of courses
• Features of individuals
• Features of the environment
 Learning from training
Features of courses:

• Relevant training: need to customise

• Involve mixture of both cognitive and
stimulus-response learning strategies
 Learning from training

Features of individuals:
• Trainees must feel the training is valuable
• Different learning strategies for different
people
 Learning from training
• Primary strategies:
a) Cognitive strategies: rehearsal, organization,
copying
b) Behavioural strategies: interpersonal learning,
practical applications, etc.
• Secondary strategies, i.e. strategies that help
regulate anxiety and motivation relayed to
learning
 Learning from training
Features of the environment
• Control
• Autonomy
• Support