CHAPTER 7

TUNING OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS

IVAN PORTNOY, Ph.D.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

 INTRODUCTION

The tuning of a feedback controller refers to the adjustment of its parameters in

order to obtain a specified closed-loop response. However, before tuning the
controller, a process characterization must be performed. We will look at two
methods for carrying out process characterization:

• On-line (closed loop)

• Off-line (step-testing)
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:

 
Proposed by Ziegler and Nichols in 1942. It consists of two steps:

Step 1: Determination of the dynamic characteristics of the control loop. These

characteristics are represented by the ultimate gain, , and the ultimate period of
oscillation, , of the loop, using the transfer function for a P-only controller,
regardless the actual controller to be used.

Step 2: Estimation of the controller tuning parameters that produce a desired

response.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN
 
If transfer functions of all components of the loop are known, the dynamic
parameters and can be analytically determined. This is not usually the case, and we
must often determine them from the actual process by the following procedure:

1. Switch off the integral and derivative modes so as to have a P controller.

2. With the controller in automatic (closed-loop), increase the proportional gain
slowly until the loop goes oscillatory with constant amplitude. Record the value
of the gain that produces sustained oscillations as .
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN

 3. The period of oscillation is measured and recorded as .

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN
For the desired response, Ziegler and Nichols specified a decay ratio of one quarter,
i.e., the ratio of the amplitudes of two consecutive oscillations.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN
 
Once and have been determined, they are used to calculate the controller parameters
using formulas in the following table:
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN

The QDR response is very desirable for disturbance inputs, because it prevents a
large initial deviation from set point without being too oscillatory. However, it is not
so desirable for step changes in set point because it causes a 50% overshoot.

This difficulty can be easily corrected by reducing the controller gain from the value
predicted by the formulas.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION
 
The Ziegler-Nichols on-line tuning method introduced before is the only one that
characterizes process by and . Most methods approximate processes to a first order
plus dead time (FOPDT) or a second order plus dead time (SOPDT) transfer function.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION

 
Where and .
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION

 
As the controller concerns, is the process, and this is precisely what must be
approximated, if possible, as a FOPDT or SOPDT transfer function.
A FOPDT looks like:

While a SOPDT looks like:

For underdamped processes:

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
PROCESS STEP TESTING
 
The step test procedure is carried out as follows:

1. With the controller on manual apply a step change in the signal . The
magnitude of this change should be large enough for the consequent change in
the transmitter signal to be measurable, but not so large that the response will
be distorted by the process nonlinearities.

2. Record the response of from the time of introduction of the step test until the
system reaches a new steady state.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
PROCESS STEP TESTING
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
PROCESS STEP TESTING:
APPROXIMATION TO FOPDT (FIT 3)
 Once open-loop step response has been performed, the FOPDT parameters can be
determined by a fit 3 procedure:

  ∆𝑐 3
𝑘= ,𝜏= ( 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 1 ) , 𝑡 0 =𝑡 2 − 𝜏
Δ𝑚 2
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR QDR RESPONSE
In addition to on-line tuning formulas, Ziegler and Nichols developed off-line
formulas based on a FOPDT model fit to the process reaction curve.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR QDR RESPONSE

 
In using the formulas of Table 7-2.1, we must keep in mind that they are empirical
and apply only to a limited range of ratios of dead time to time constant. They are
most applicable for a range of of around 0.10 to 0.5.

As pointed out in the discussion of on-line tuning, the QDR formulas can be adjusted
to less oscillatory responses by reducing the proportional gain from the value given
by the tuning formula.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR MINIMUM ERROR INTEGRAL
CRITERION
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR MINIMUM ERROR INTEGRAL CRITERIA
 
The integral of the error cannot be minimized directly, because a very large negative
error would be the minimum.

In order to prevent negative values of the performance function, the following

formulation of the integral can be proposed:

• Integral of the absolute value of the error:

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR MINIMUM ERROR INTEGRAL CRITERIA

In terms of the input type, we must select either set point or disturbance input for
tuning, according to which one is expected to affect the loop more often.

Most process controllers are considered regulators, except for the slave controllers in
cascade control schemes, which are servo regulators (in this case set point changes
are the most important).
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR DISTURBANCE INPUTS

Lopez et al. (1967) developed tuning formulas for minimum error integral criteria.

 They are most applicable for a range of of around 0.10 to 1

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR SET POINT CHANGES

 They are most applicable for a range of of around 0.10 to 1

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR DISTURBANCE:
PERFORMANCE
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR DISTURBANCE:
PERFORMANCE
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS

 
Instead of using a pre-determined controller structure (e.g., a PID), Dahlin proposed to
obtain the controller’s transfer function that is required to obtain a desired response,
given that we know the process transfer function . The closed loop transfer function is:

From the above equation, the most suited controller’s transfer function. can be obtained:
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS
 
To fully determine the controller characteristics, a desired response must be specified.
Suppose that we want to tightly (without any delay) follow setpoint, i.e.: . Then:

This is impossible!

A more realistic expected response is:

where is a time constant associated with the loop, and will be an adjustable tuning parameter.
Some authors use .
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS
 
This desired response requires a controller with the following structure:
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS
 
Suppose that the process can be modelled as a first order transfer function, i.e.:

And that the desired response is . Then, the controller should be:

After some algebraic manipulation, the above equation can be re-written as:

This result is equivalent to a PI controller with and .

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS

 For 5% Overshoot:
TUNING A CONTROLLER FOR AN INTEGRATING PROCESS
 Mass Balance:

Then:

Moreover, for the valve:

And for the sensor transmitter:

Then:

Defining: :
TUNING A CONTROLLER FOR AN INTEGRATING PROCESS
For
  a direct-action P-only controller:

Thus the characteristic equation of the loop will be:

Then:

The roots of the above polynomial are:

Notice that:
• If , both roots will be complex with a negative real part. Thus, the loop response would be
stable with oscillations around the setpoint.
• Otherwise, if , both roots would be real and negative. Thus, the loop response would be
stable without oscillations.

In conclusion, a value within is recommended.

TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15

 
TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15

 
TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
 TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
Solution, Item b)
 
For , the change after the step-test was , while Also, , and . Then:

Then:
 TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
Solution, Item b)
For
  , the change after the step-test was , while Also, , and . Then:

Then:
 TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
Solution, Items c) and d)
c)
  Notice that

Regarding the controller action, since the gain (of ) is negative, so should the controller gain be, i.e. . Thus, the
controller will have a direct action.

d) Using the min IAE formula (for disturbance input):

The gain of the closed loop transfer function for the disturbance input will be:

The offset will be:

 TUNING: EXCERCISES:
7-15
Solution, Item e)
e)
  For QDR response:
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION: DAHLIN
SYNTHESIS TUNING FORMULAS

 For 5% Overshoot:
 THE FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOP:
CLOSED LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTIONS:
A SIMPLER FORM

,
 THE FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOP:
STEADY STATE DEVIATION (OFFSET) AFTER SETPOINT
AND DISTURBANCE CHANGES
 
Kc>0 reverse action

then, the steady-state change in , caused by changes in setpoint and/or a disturbance, ,

is:

and offset will be:

 2 𝜋
𝑇 𝑢 =  𝜔
𝑢
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
PROCESS STEP TESTING:
APPROXIMATION TO FOPDT (FIT 3)
 Once open-loop step response has been performed, the FOPDT parameters can be
determined by a fit 3 procedure:

  ∆𝑐 3
𝑘= ,𝜏= ( 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 1 ) , 𝑡 0 =𝑡 2 − 𝜏
Δ𝑚 2
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
ON-LINE (CLOSED LOOP) METHOD:
QUARTER DECAY RATIO (QDR) BY ULTIMATE GAIN
 
Once and have been determined, they are used to calculate the controller parameters
using formulas in the following table:
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
TUNING FOR QDR RESPONSE
In addition to on-line tuning formulas, Ziegler and Nichols developed off-line
formulas based on a FOPDT model fit to the process reaction curve.
 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR DISTURBANCE INPUTS

Lopez et al. (1967) developed tuning formulas for minimum error integral criteria.

 They are most applicable for a range of of around 0.10 to 1

 PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
OPEN-LOOP PROCESS CHARACTERIZATION:
MINIMUM IAE FORMULAS FOR SET POINT CHANGES

 They are most applicable for a range of of around 0.10 to 1