THE OSTEOLOGY

The Human Anatomy is the oldest basic medical science. Anatomy

(ana = up; -tomy process of cutting) is the science of body structures
and the relationships among structures. It was first studied by dissection
(dis = apart; - section = act of cutting), the careful cutting apart of
body structures to study their relationships. Today, a variety of imaging
techniques also contribute to the advancement of anatomical
knowledge.
 LEVELS OF BODY ORGANIZATION
1. The chemical level includes atoms, the smallest units of matters that
participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined
together.
2. At the cellular level, molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural
and functional units of an organism.
3. The next level is the tissue level. Tissues are groups of cells and the
material surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function.
There are just four basic types of tissue in your body: epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
4. At the organ level, different kinds of tissues are joined together. Organs
are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues;
they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shape. (Examples of
organs are the stomach, heart, liver, brain).
5. The next level is the system level. A system consists of related organs that
have a common function. (An example is the digestive system).
6. The largest organizational level is the organismal level. An organism is
any living individual. All the parts of the human body functioning together
constitute the total organism-one living person.
 STRUCTURE OF BONE
A typical long bone, for instance, the arm bone, consists of the following parts:
1. The diaphysis (=growing between) is the bone’s shaft or body–the long ,
main portion of the bone.
2. The epiphyses (=growing over) are the distal and proximal ends of the bone.
3. The metaphyses (meta=between) are the regions in a mature bone where the
diaphysis joins the epiphyses.
4. The articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the
epiphysis where the bone forms an articulation with another bone.
5. The periosteum (peri=around, os=bone) is a tough sheath of dense irregular
connective tissue that surrounds the bone surface. The periosteum contains bone-
forming cells that enable bone to grow in diameter, but not in length. It also protects
the bone, assists in fracture repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and serves as an
attachment for ligaments and tendons.
6. The medullary cavity (medulla=marrow) or marrow cavity is the space
within the diaphysis that contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults or red bone
marrow in the fetus.
7. The endosteum (endo=within) is a thin membrane that lines the medullary
cavity. It contains a single layer of bone-forming cells and a small amount of
connective tissue.
 Bone tissue contains an abundant matrix of intercellular materials that
surround widely separated cells. The matrix is about 25% water, 25%
collagen fibers, and 50% crystallized mineral salts. The abundant mineral
salts are hydroxyapatite, magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, end sulfate. These
mineral salts are deposited in the framework formed by the collagen fibres
of the matrix. Four types of cells are present in bone tissue:

1.Osteogenic cells (-genic=producing) are unspecialized stem cells

derived from mesenchyme, the tissue from which all connective tissues
are formed.
2.Osteoblasts (-blasts=buds) are bone-building cells. They secrete
collagen fibers needed to build the matrix.
3.Osteocytes (-cytes=cells) mature bone cells maintain daily
metabolism of the bone tissue. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes do not
undergo cell division.
4. Osteoclasts (-clasts=break) huge cells are concentrated in the
endosteum and breakdown of bone matrix, termed resorption.This is
part of the normal development, growth, and repair of bone.
 COMPACT BONE TISSUE
Compact bone tissue contains few spaces. It forms the external
layer of all bones and makes up the bulk of the diaphyses of long
bones. Compact bone tissue is arranged in units called osteons or
Haversian systems. Blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves from the
periosteum penetrate the compact bone through transverse perforating
(Volkmann`s) canals. They connect with central (Haversian) canals
runing longitudinally through the bone. Around the canals are
concentric lamellae – rings of calcified matrix. Between them are
small spaces – lacunae (=little lakes), which contain osteocytes.
Radiating in all directions are tiny canaliculi, which are filled with
extracellular fluid. Inside the canaliculi are slender processes of
osteocytes.The canaliculi connect lacunae with one another and with
the central canals and provide many routes for nutrients and oxygen to
reach the osteocytes and for wastes to diffuse away.
Lamillae that encircle the bone just beneath the periosteum are called
outer circumferential lamellae, those that encircle the mrdullary
cavity are called inner circumferential lamellae.
 SPONGY BONE TISSUE

Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons. It consists of

trabeculae (=little beams), an irregular latticework of thin
columns of bone. The macroscopic spaces between the trabeculae
are filled with red bone marrow. Within each trabecula are
osteocytes that lie in the lacunae. Radiating from the lacunae are
canaliculi.
Spongy bone tissue makes up most of short, flat, irregular bones
and the epiphyses of tubular bones.
 BONE FORMATION

The process by which bone forms is called ossification or

osteogenesis. The “skeleton” of a human embrio is composed of
loose connective tissue membranes and pieces of hyaline cartilage,
which are shaped like bones and are the sites where ossification
occurs. It begins during the sixth or seventh week of embryonic
development and follows one of two patterns.
1. Intramembranous ossification – bone forms directly on or
within loose fibrous connective tissue membranes.The flat
bones of the skull are formed in this way.
2. Endochondral ossification is replacement of cartilage by
bone . Most bones of the body are formed in this way.
 BONE CLASSIFICATION

1.Tubular bones are composed of spongy and compact substance forming a tube with a marrow cavity. Long
tubular bones ( arm bones, forearm bones, thigh bones, and leg bones) are supports and long levels of movement
and they have endochondral ossification foci in both epiphyses (biepiphyseal bones) but not in the diaphysis. Short
tubular bones (metatarsal, metacarpal, phalanges) are short levels of movements; an endochondral ossification
focusis found only in one (true) epiphysis (monoepiphyseal bones).
2. Spongy bones consist of spongy substance cavered with a thin layer of compact substance. Long (ribs and
sternum) and short (carpal, tarsal) spongy bones are distinguished. This group of bones also includes sesamoid
bones (the knee cap, the pisiform bone, the sesamoid bones of the fingers and toes). They act as accessory devices
in the work of muscles, are located close to the joins but are not joined directly to the bones of the skeleton.
3. Flat bones: (a) the flat bones of the skull (frontal and parietal) perfom a protective function.Their structure is
diploe (consist of spongy substance lying between two bone tables, the outer and the inner), and they ossify from
connective tissue.
(b) the flat bonrs of the girdles (shoulder blades, pelvic bones) perfom supportive and protective functions. Their
structure is primarily spongy substance. Ossification occurs in cartilaginous tissue.
4. Mixed(irregular)bones (bones of the base of the skull) are formed by the fusion of several parts. They vary in
the amount of spongy and compact bone present.
 DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The adult human skeleton consist of 206 named bones, most of which are
paired. The skeleton of infants and children have more than 206 bones
because some of their bones fuse later in life.
Bones of adult skeleton are grouped into two principal divisions: the 80
bones of the axial skeleton and the 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton.
Thank you for
attention!