INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

Based on the books:

Symbolic Logic by Irving Copi and
Postcript to Symbolic Logic by Rene Calandria `
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 I have different shapes. The triangle
is smaller than the rectangle. The
rectangle is larger than the circle.
The circle is smaller than the
square. The octagon is larger than
the triangle. The pentagon is smaller
than the octagon. The ellipse is
larger than the pentagon. Which of
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these cannot be the largest shape? 2
 LOGIC

• art of drawing up new

propositions from a set of
given propositions

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 • the study of logic is the
study of the methods and
principles used in
distinguishing correct (good)
from incorrect (bad)
arguments

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 Terms used:
a) term – is a word which
conveys an idea, it is a
conventional sign which
presents to the mind a concept
of something which is agreed
upon by persons using the term
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 i) univocal terms – words
whose meaning convey exactly
the same meaning in its
different uses in the argument
Example:
All Filipinos are hospitable,
All Cebuanos are Filipinos,
Therefore, all Cebuanos are hospitable.
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 ii) equivocal terms – words
which connote an entirely
different meaning in their use in
the argument
Example:
My son likes to eat an orange,
The picture on the wall is that of my son,
Therefore, the picture on the wall likes to eat an
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orange.
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 iii) analogous terms – present a
parallelism, do not give an
exact definition or an entirely
different meaning; rather, the
use of the term presents
similarities that are barely
related to the original meaning
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 Example:
Life is like a wheel,
Sometimes you’re up,
Sometimes you’re down.
Metaphorical and poetic words
may be classified under analogous
terms.
 
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 Propositions
 

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 Any argument in logic is
made up of propositions.
- propositions are verbal
expressions of judgment
which are either true or false

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 A. Nature and elements:
a) subject – the object affirmed
b) predicate – quality or
attribute affirmed or denied by
the subject
c) copula – intermediary between
the subject and the predicate
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 Example:

An orator is eloquent and humorous.

subj copula predicate

The father is not the sole breadwinner.

subj copula predicate

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B. Quality: affirmative, negative
Exercise:
1. Faithful friends are good chums.
positive subj positive copula positive predicate

2. Some students are unfaithful to their duties.

positive subj positive copula negative predicate

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 3. Disobedient children are irresponsible.
  negative subj positive copula negative predicate
 

4. Illegal loggers are not environment – conscious.

 negative subj negative copula positive predicate
5. Devoted Catholics are not immoral.
Positive subj negative copula negative predicate

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 C. Quantity:
1.Universal – the entire
proposition is universal, the
entire subject is wholly
affirmed or denied by the
predicate
Ex: all, every, each, everyone, anybody,
nobody, whoever, everybody,
everything, whatever, anyone
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 2. Particular – when only part
and not the entire subject is
affirmed or denied
Ex: Some, someone, somebody, several,
few, many, most, the use of numbers
( e.g. seven, three, etc),the expression “
there are “ connotes particularity

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 3. Singular – the subject of the
proposition stands out for a
single individual
Ex: The use of this or that, proper and
collective nouns, noun described in a
superlative degree

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 Example:

• Every senator is elected by the people.

• All religious nuns are spiritually poor.
• Most delegates of the seminar are Catholics.
• Some students are very courteous.
• That house is that of my friend.
• The most intelligent student was given a
medal.
• St. Paul was a disciple of Christ.
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 D. Symbols of propositions

- Based upon the quality and

quantity
A – from AFFIRMO, used to
symbolize a proposition
which is both universal and
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 Ex:

• Every government official is a

public servant.
• All dedicated students are to
spend more extra time for
research.
• Whatever is the decision of the
group should be made binding
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 • I – from the second vowel of
AFFIRMO, used for
propositions which are
particular and affirmative

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 Ex:

• Most members of the panel

are good orators.
• Few more days are left before
the submission of our project.
• Seven members were
suspended due to absences.
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 • E – from NEGO which means
deny, used for propositions
which are universal and negative

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 Example:
Whoever is the winner will not
qualify for the next contest.
All illegal loggers are not
environment-conscious.
Every convicted criminal is not
morally worthy of public office.
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 • O- from the last vowel of
NEGO, used for propositions
which are particular and
negative

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 Examples:
Many of the poor people do not
have the opportunity to quality
education.
Several among those Filipinos
working abroad are not treated
properly.
GNED 3 Few women are not engaged in
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politics.
 • Note:
A singular proposition that is
affirmative may adopt A as its
symbol while a singular
proposition that is negative
may be classified as an E
proposition.
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 Exercise: Determine whether the
propositions are affirmative or negative.
1. All chartered cities are not dependent
on the provincial government.
2. Every single day is a glorious day.
3. All forms of prostitutions are immoral.
4. He who is not with me is against me.
5. Love is the synthesis of Christ’s
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teachings.
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 Determine whether the propositions are universal, particular or
singular:

1. This table is made of narra tree.

2. Most congressmen are millionaires.
3. Every Filipino is Asian.
4. All lawyers are above average.
5. Each member of the congress is a
legislator.
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 Identify the propositions as to A, I, E, or O.
1.Whoever joined the bombing is not a peace
lover.
2.Most candidates of the Mutya ng Pilipinas
are articulate.
3. There are political leaders who are not
worthy of public trust.
4. There are actors who are in public office.
5. Seven among the candidates for graduation
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were not able to make it.
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 6. Nobody will re-elect a corrupt
official.
7. Everything is under control.
8. Anyone who is not with me is
against me.
9. Some fathers are not responsible.
10.St. John Baptist De La Salle is the
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patron saint of teachers.
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 Seat work #1
1. All are one before God.
2. Somebody will take control.
3. No citizen is above the law.
4. Seven among the candidates for
graduation were not called.
5. Anyone who is not with me is
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against me.
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 6 . Any corrupt official is not honest.
7. Some online games are violent.
8. Every single day is a glorious day.
9. Only few policemen are not true to
their duties.
10. All realist are not idealist.

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