Descriptive Statistics:

Variability
Lesson 5
Theories & Statistical Models
 Theories

Describe, explain, & predict real-
world events/objects
 Models

Replicas of real-world
events/objects

Can test predictions ~
 Models & Fit
 Model not exact replica

Smaller, simulated
 Sample

Model of population

Introduces error
 Fit

How well does model represent population?

Amount of error in model

Good fit  more useful ~
 Models in Psychology
 My research model

Domestic chicks

Effects of pre-/postnatal drug use

Addiction & its consequences
 Who/What do most psychologists study?

Rats, pigeons, intro. psych. students
 External validity

Good fit with real-world populations? ~
 The General Linear Model
 Relationship b/n predictor & outcome
variables form straight line

Correlation, regression, analysis of
variance

Other more complex models ~
The Mean as a Statistical Model
 Very simple model

1 number represents all the observations

Often hypothetical value
 e.g., mean # friends = 2.6
 Error introduced

Actual # friends = mean + error
 Deviation (deviance)

~

Xi  
Distributions: 3 useful features
 Summarizes important characteristics of
data

 1. What is shape of the distribution?


 2. Where is middle of distribution?

 3. How wide is distribution?

Assessing the Fit of the Mean
 How well does it represent all
observations?

On average near or far from mean?
 Distance from mean

Or width of distribution
 Variability

How much do scores vary from the
mean? ~
Mean Daily Temperature
 For which group is the mean
a better fit for the data?

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90


10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
 Measures of Variability
 Deviation: for a single score
 Range

Highest value – lowest value + 1
 Standard deviation

Conceptually: mean of all deviation scores

average distance of scores from mean
 Variance

Used to calculate standard deviation

Also used in analysis of variance ~
 From the Dictionary
 Deviation: departure from a standard or norm.
 Variance: the state, quality, or fact of being
variable, divergent, different, or anomalous.
 Error: a deviation from accuracy or correctness
 Variability: something that may or does vary; a
variable feature or factor
 Variation: something that may or does vary; a
variable feature or factor ~
Calculating the Standard Deviation
 Why only conceptually mean of
deviation scores?
If Xi Xi -


X
i

 1
 What is mean deviation? 2
3
 (Xi – ) = 0 ~
4
5
 4 Steps to Standard Deviation
 1. Calculate deviation scores Xi  
 2. Sums of squared deviations

Or Sums of squares (SS) SS   ( X i   ) 2

 3. Variance
mean of squared deviations



(MS) (X  ) 2

 2
 i

 4. Standard deviation N

square root of variance ~

 (X i  ) 2

N
 Standard Deviation (SD)

 (X i  ) 2

 Conceptually mean deviation score

for all data

Gives width (dispersion) of
distribution
 Describing a distribution

Report mean & standard deviation

~
 Samples & Variability
 Usually study samples
 to learn about populations

Sampling introduces error

Change symbols & formula

SS   ( X  X ) 2
s
 ( X  X ) 2

N 1
s 
2  ( X  X ) 2

N 1
Samples: Degrees of Freedom (df)
 df = N – 1

For a single sample (or group)
 s tends to underestimate s

Fewer Xi used to calculate

Dividing by N-1 boosts value of s
 Also used for

Confidence intervals for sample means

Critical values in hypothesis testing ~
 Level Of Measurement &
Variability
 Which can be used?
 nominal

none
 ordinal

range only
 interval/ratio

all 3 OK

range, standard deviation, & variance ~
 Statistical Models
 Representation of the population

We will focus on linear models
 Mean is a simple model

One number represents all data

Both
Standard deviation


and X

measures fit of model

Better fit  more useful

Smaller ~

 and s