Unit-2: Data Collection and analysis - I:

Execution of the research - Observation and Collection

of data - Methods of data collection – Modeling,
Mathematical Models for research, Sampling Methods-
Data Processing and Analysis strategies. Data Analysis
with Statistical Packages – Hypothesis-testing,
Generalization-and-Interpretation.
8
hours

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 1
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Processing Data
• The data, after collection has to be processed and
analyzed
• It has to be done in accordance with the objective of the
research plan
• This is essential for scientific study
• This is important to ensure that one has all the relevant
data for making required comparisons
• Processing is nothing but editing, coding, classification
and tabulation of collected data
• ‘Analysis’ refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist
among data - groups
Advanced Research
10/09/2016 2
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Editing
• The data collected is ---raw data
• So it needs editing
• Editing is arranging and sorting the data in a
systematic way
• Depending on when and where the editing is done,
data editing process is classified as:
1. Field editing: Review of the data collected
by the investigator
For example, this data may be the written answers
in abbreviated form while interviewing a person

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 3
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• That data has to be rewritten or translated to complete
the respondents’ response as early as possible
• ‘Central Editing’ is the editing done by the investigator
in his/her office after completing the process of data
collection through one or more types of data collection
• In this type of editing, data collected through all types
of data collection should get through editing by a
single editor in a small study and by a team of editors
in case of a large inquiry
• Editor(s) may correct the common errors such as, an
entry in the wrong place, a wrong entry with regard to
time and place of data had been collected

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 4
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Coding
• Coding (encoding) refers to the process of assigning
numerals or other symbols to the data collected
• This step will facilitate the data to be put into a
limited number of categories
• Such categories (divisions) should be appropriate to
the research investigation under consideration
• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and
through

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 5
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Classification
• Most of the research studies generate a large volume
of raw data
• This has to be reduced to homogeneous groups
• Then only the analysis of the data would create
meaningful relationships
• This happens to be the process of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics
• Data having a common characteristic are placed in
one class
• Classification can be one of the following 2 types

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 6
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 a)Classification according to attributes
• Data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics
• Characteristics could be either descriptive (such as sex,
literacy, profession etc) or numerical ( such as height,
weight, income etc)
• Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative
phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively—only their presence or absence in an
individual item can be noticed
• Data obtained (or classified) this way are known as
‘statistics of attributes’
Advanced Research
10/09/2016 7
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• There are 2 types of such classifications (based on
attributes):
1. ‘Simple classification’: Here only one attribute is
considered and the population is divided into 2
classes– one consisting of items with the given
attribute and the other consisting items without the
attribute
2. ‘Manifold classification’: Here 2 or more
attributes are considered simultaneously and divide
the data into a number of classes
Total no.of classes of final order is given by 2n,
where ‘n’ is the number of attributes considered

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 8
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 b) Classification according to class-intervals
• Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical
characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon
which can be measured through some statistical
units
• Data relating to an individual’s income, age ,weight
etc., fall under this category
• Such data are known as ‘ statistics of variables’
• These are classified on the basis of class intervals
• For example: Persons having income in the range Rs
20,000/- to Rs25,000/- -----one group
• Persons having income in the range Rs25,000/- to
Rs35,000/- …..another group
Advanced Research
10/09/2016 9
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• In this way the entire data may be divided into a
number of groups or classes or class-intervals
• Each class-interval will have a range--- an upper limit
and lower limit
• The difference between the 2 class limits (Rs 5000/-)
is known as ‘ class magnitude’
• Class intervals may be with equal or non-equal class
magnitudes
• The number of items which fall in given class is
known as the frequency of the given class
• All the classes with their respective frequencies taken
together and put in a table…..frequency distribution

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 10
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 • The following factors to be considered:
1.How many classes should be there? What should be their
magnitudes?
• There cannot be a specific answer for this question
• The decision taken about this depends on the skill and
experience of the researcher
• However, the objective should be to display the data in such
a way as to make it meaningful for the analysis
• Typically we may have 5 to 15 classes

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 11
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• With regard to the magnitude, to the extent
possible. Class intervals should be of equal
magnitudes
• But in some cases unequal magnitudes may result
in better classification
• Multiples of 2, 5 and 10 are generally preferred
while determining class magnitudes

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 12
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• Some statisticians adopt the following formula
suggested by H.A. Sturges:
i= R/(1+3.3 log N)
Where i= size of the class interval (class magnitude)
R= Range of the class (Largest item- smallest item)
N= Number of items to be grouped = frequency

Salary R N i

20,000/- to 25,000/- 40,000/- -20,000/- 10 4000

= 20,000/-
25,000/- to 30,000/- 10

30,000/- to 40,000/- 10

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 13
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 4. TABULATION
• When the collected data is huge, need arises for the
researcher to arrange them in some kind of
compact and logical order
• This procedure is known as ‘Tabulation’
• It conserves space and reduces explanations and
descriptions
• It facilitates the process of comparison
• It provides a basis for various statistical
computations

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 14
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Some problems in processing
• We shall look at the following 2 problems:
1.The problem concerning ‘Don’t know’ (DK) responses
. When this DK response group is small, then it does not
create any problem (it is of little significance)
. If the group relatively big, it becomes a matter of
major concern for processing
. Is the question useless?
. The respondent may not actually know the answer
or the investigator had failed to get the proper
response
• Investigator has to redo the exercise by modifying the
question
Advanced Research
10/09/2016 15
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
• 2nd problem is---use of percentages
• In data representation percentage is used as they
simplify numbers
• The data are reduced in standard form with base
equal to 100
• This facilitates relative comparisions
• Use of too large percentages should be avoided-----
as it is difficult understand and the very purpose of
making the percentage is defeated
• Percentage decreases can never exceed 100 percent
and as such investigator has to be careful while
calculating it
Advanced Research
10/09/2016 16
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Elements /Types of ANALYSIS
• Analysis means the computation of certain indices
or measures along with searching patterns of
relationship that exists among the data groups
• Analysis involves estimating the values of unknown
parameters of the population and testing the
hypotheses
• Analysis may be ‘descriptive’ or ‘Inferential’
• Descriptive analysis is largely the study of
distributions of one variable
• Inferential analysis is ‘statistical analysis’

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 17
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Analysis of Data (Summary)

Analysis of Data
Processing data

Editing Descriptive and Causal Analyses Inferential analysis/

Statistical analysis
Coding
Classification
Tabulation
Use of percentage

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 18
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Descriptive and Casual Analysis

Uni-dimensional Analysis
Multi- variate Analysis

Bi- variate Analysis

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 19
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Uni- Dimensional Analysis

(Calculation of several measures mostly concerning one

variable)
i) Measures of Central Tendency

ii) Measure of Dispersion

iii) Measure of skewness

iv)One-way ANOVA, Index numbers , Time series

Analysis

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 20
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Bi-variate Analysis
(Analysis 0f 2 variables or attributes in a 2- way classification)

Simple regression and simple correlation w.r.t variable

Association of attributes

2-way ANOVA

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 21
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
Multi- variable Analysis
(Simultaneous analysis of more than 2 variables/attributes
In a multiway classification)

Multiple regression and multiple correlation/Partial

correlation in respect of variables
Multiple discriminate analysis
Multi- ANOVA (in respect of variables)
Canonical analysis ( in respect of both variables
and attributes)

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 22
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64
 Inferential analysis/ Statistical analysis

Testing hypotheses
Estimation of parameter
values

Parametric tests
Point estimate

Non-parametric
Interval estimate Testing or distribution
Free testing

Advanced Research
10/09/2016 23
Methodology...RU,Bangalore-64