New Motivation Handout

Motivation at Work
Copyright ©2005 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

Organizational Behavior Course
Model
OB Outcomes: Attitudes Influenced by Managers
and Behaviors Using
Effort Application of Individual
Job Satisfaction Differences
Absenteeism  Perceptions
Turnover
 Attributions
 Attitude change
Stress  Values
Workplace Violence  Personality
Organizational Citizenship Group Dynamics
Behavior and Commitment Reward Systems
Employee Theft Job Design
Safety and Accidents Leadership
Sexual Harassment
Grievances
 Motivation Illustration
 Misconceptions about Motivation
*Current generation has no work ethic
* Some people are born “lazy”
* Most people are motivated by the same thing
Why is Motivation Important?
 Under optimal conditions,

effort can often be increased
and sustained
 Delegation without constant
supervision is always
necessary
 Employees can become self-
motivated
 Motivated employees can
provide competitive advantage
by offering suggestions &
working to satisfy customers
Motivation is important in
management
 Basic job motivation. Most firms have average
workers. Exceptional firms motivate average
workers. (note some firms have high pay and select
talented employees).
 Change efforts
 Supervision is easier if people are trying.
Definition of Motivation
Motivation - the process of arousing and

sustaining goal-directed behavior
Motivation is accomplishing
things through the efforts of
others. If you cannot do this,
you will fail as
a manager.
Fundamentals of Employee
Motivation
 Motivation
 psychological processes cause the arousal,
direction, and persistence of voluntary actions

that are goal directed
 Basic motivational concepts
 Motivation—the forces within the individual that

account for the level, direction, and persistence of
effort expended at work.
 Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the
individual
 Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to
someone by another person.

 Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur
naturally as a person works on a task.
Management - Chapter 14
9
To achieve maximum
motivational potential in linking
rewards to performance …
 Respect diversity and individual
differences to best understand what people
want from work.
 Allocate rewards to satisfy the interests of
both individuals and the organization.
10
An Integrated Model of
Motivation
8-18
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic
• Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation being motivation caused
driven by positive by the desire to
feelings attain specific
associated with outcomes
doing well on a
task or job
McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
8-19
Figure 8-6
A Model of Intrinsic Motivation
Opportunity Accomplishment
Rewards Rewards
From Sense of Sense of

Task Choice Competence
Activities
From Sense of Sense of

Task
Purpose Meaningfulness Progress
McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

8-15
Figure 8-5
The Job Characteristics Model

Core
Critical
job Outcomes
psychological
characteristics
state
 Skill variety  Experienced  High

 Task identity meaningfulness intrinsic
 Task of work work
significance  Experienced motivation
 High growth
 Autonomy responsibility satisfaction
for outcomes of  High
the work general job
satisfaction
 Feedback  Knowledge of  High work
from the effectiveness
job actual results of
the work
activities
McGraw-Hill Moderators .
1. Knowledge and skill
2. Growth need strength
3. Context satisfaction
Advantages of intrinsic
Motivation
 Low cost
 Persistence is high
 Unleash employees for change.
 Builds relationships internally and externally
Disadvantages
 Control freaks nightmare

 Strategic change is difficult.
Intrinsic Motivation
 Often ignored in today’s work environment.

 Its what many of the best firms do! Very few
average or below average firms do not.
 Not leadership per se but more organizational
culture.
 Leadership style needs to be supportive to create
the culture.
Extrinsic Motivation
 Many different approaches.

 Debate highlighted these issues.
3 Groups of
Motivational Theories
 Internal
 Suggest that variables within the individual
give rise to motivation and behavior
 Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
 Process
 Emphasize the nature of the interaction
between the individual and the environment
 Example: Expectancy theory
 External
 Focus on environmental elements to explain
behavior
MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
I. Need Approaches:
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
II. Cognitive Approaches:
- Expectancy Theory
- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison
- Goal Setting Theory
III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY OR OPERANT
CONDITIONING : How Rewards & Reinforcements
Sustain Motivation Over Time
(Behavior Modification)
Job performance = f (ability X
motivation X organizational
support)
Types of motivation theories
 Content theories
 Human needs and how people with different needs
may respond to different work situations.
 Process theories
 How people give meaning to rewards and make
decisions on various work-related behaviors.
 Reinforcement theory
 How people’s behavior is influenced by
environmental consequences.
22
Early Philosophers of
Motivational Theories
 Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant
work ethic
 Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better
understand a person’s motives and needs
 Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in
the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other
people
 Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management;
emphasized cooperation between management and labor to
enlarge company profits
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SA
der
Esteem
or
ste
gh
hi
Love (Social)
o
tts
we
Lo
Safety & Security
Physiological
“Issues” with Maslow’s Need Model
1. Businesses typically do well satisfying

lower order needs.
2. Model stipulates that there are 5 needs
and that the order is “fixed”. Research
indicates some may only have 2-3 need
hierarchy; others 5-6. The order may also
be inverted and meeting needs outside of
work not accounted for.
3. Model not developed from average
Opportunities for satisfaction in
Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.
26
Motivational Theories X & Y
SA Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
Esteem manage individuals
motivated by higher
Love (Social) order needs
Theory X - a set of
Safety & Security assumptions of how to
manage individuals
Physiological motivated by lower
order needs
McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory X
 Naturally indolent
 Lack ambition, dislike
responsibility, and prefer to be led
 Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
 Naturally resistant to change
 Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.
McGregor’s Assumptions
About People Based on Theory Y
 Experiences in organizations result in passive and
resistant behaviors; they are not inherent
 Motivation, development potential, capacity for
assuming responsibility, readiness to direct
behavior toward organizational goals are present
in people
 Management’s task—arrange conditions and
operational methods so people can achieve their
own goals by directing efforts to organizational
goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
ERG theory
 Developed by Clayton Alderfer.

 Three need levels:
 Existence needs — desires for physiological and
material well-being.
 Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
 Growth needs — desires for continued psychological
growth and development.
30
 ERG theory
 Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time.
 Frustration-regression principle.
 An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.
31
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
SA Growth
Esteem
Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety & Security
Existence
Physiological
McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns
individuals’ issues of
excellence, competition,
challenging goals, persistence,
and overcoming difficulties
Need for Power
Need for Power - a manifest

(easily perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s need
to make an impact on others,
influence others, change people
or events, and make a
difference in life
Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation - a

manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to establish
and maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships with
other people
Acquired needs theory
 Developed by David McClelland.

 People acquire needs through their life
experiences.
 Needs that are acquired:
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Need for Power (nPower)
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
36
Study Question 2: What are the
different types of individual needs?
 Acquired needs theory

 Need for Achievement (nAch)
 Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
 People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
 Involves individual responsibility for results.
 Involves achievable but challenging goals.
 Provides feedback on performance.
37
 Acquired needs theory

 Need for Power (nPower)
 Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people.
 Personal power versus social power.
 People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

 Involves control over other persons.
 Has an impact on people and events.
 Brings public recognition and attention.
38
WORK PREFERENCES OF PERSONS HIGH IN NEED
FOR ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND POWER
INDIVIDUAL NEED WORK PREFERENCES JOB EXAMPLE
- Individual responsibility Field sales person

High need for
achievement - Challenging but with challenging quota
achievable goals and opportunity to
earn individual bonus
- Feedback on
performance
- Interpersonal Customer service
High need for relationships representative;
affiliation
- Opportunities to member of work unit
communicate subject to group
wage bonus plan
Formal position of
High need for - Control over other supervisory
power persons responsibility;
- Attention appointment as
head of special task
- Recognition force or committee
A Comparison of Internal Need Theories of Motivation
aslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s

erarchy ERG Two Factor Acquired
Needs Theory Theory Needs Theory
elf- Achievement
ctualization Growth
Motivator
steem Power
Relatedness
elonging Affiliation
Hygiene
ecurity
Existence
hysiological
3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Higher Esteem Achievement
Order self Need for
Needs interpersonal Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation
Lower Safety & Security

Order
interpersonal
Needs physical Existence
Physiological
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
 maintenance factor
 contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied
 contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related to the

satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
 job enrichment
 leads to superior performance & effort

Herzberg’s Theory Rests on 2
Assumptions
1.) Being satisfied with one’s job is

equivalent to being motivated; “a
satisfied worker is a motivated worker”
2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

are separate concepts with unique
determinants based on work with
accountants and engineers
Herzberg’s 2-Factor
Theory
Determinants of Job
Dissatisfaction are
Hygiene* Factors: Determinants of Job
 Pay, fringe benefits Satisfaction are
Motivator Factors:
 Working conditions
 Work itself,
 Quality of supervision
responsibility
 Interpersonal relations
 Advancement
Job Environment  Recognition
Factors
Job Content
* Poor hygiene can make you,
Factors
sick, but good hygiene won’t
necessarily make you healthy
Assessment of Herzberg
Contributions Criticisms
 1st to argue that job  May be “method-bound” by
content/job design was self-serving bias
important  Some individual
 Job enrichment (the work differences, like desire for pay,
itself) as a job satisfaction rejected as a motivator.
strategy  Also, not everyone wants an
 Model appealing and easy to enriched job
understand  Assumes satisfaction
(presence of motivators) =
motivation
 Two-factor theory
 Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
 Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context.
 Sources of job dissatisfaction.
 Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content.
 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
46
Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor
theory.
47
Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy & Motivation factors
administration increase job satisfaction
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction • Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
High M Low M
High H high motivation low motivation
few complaints few complaints
Low H high motivation low motivation
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
Individual—Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Organization Individual
 Organizational goals  Physiological needs
Contributions Demands
 Departmental objectives  Security needs

 Job tasks  Physical needs
 Developmental
 Company status potential
 Benefits  Employee knowledge
 Income  Employee skills and
abilities
SOURCE: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Adams’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity - the situation in which a person

perceives he or she is receiving less than he
or she is giving, or is giving less than he or
she is receiving
Equity theory
 Developed by J. Stacy Adams.

 When people believe that they have been treated
unfairly in comparison to others, they try to
eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived
sense of equity to the situation.
 Perceived inequity.
 Perceived equity.
52
Figure 14.4 Equity theory and the
role of social comparison.
53
process theories of motivation?
 Equity theory
 People respond to perceived negative inequity by
changing …
 Work inputs.
 Rewards received.
 Comparison points.
 Situation.
54
 Managerial implications of equity theory—

 Underpaid people experience anger.
 Overpaid people experience guilt.
 Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes.
 Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be
minimized, if not eliminated.
 Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of
equity controversies in the workplace.
 Gender equity.
 Comparable worth.
55
Motivational Theory
of Social Exchange
Person Comparison
other
Equity Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Negative Outcomes < Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Positive Outcomes > Outcomes
Inequity Inputs Inputs
Strategies for
Resolution of Inequity
 Alter the person’s outcomes

 Alter the person’s inputs
 Alter the comparison other’s outputs
 Alter the comparison other’s inputs
 Change who is used as a comparison other
 Rationalize the inequity
 Leave the organizational situation
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Equity Sensitive
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison other
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Benevolent I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
New Perspectives
on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison other
Expectancy Theory
Involves 3 cognitions/perceptions:
1. Expectancy - the perceived probability that effort

will
lead to task performance. E link
2. Instrumentality - the perceived probability that

performance will lead to rewards.
I link
3. Valence - the anticipated value of a particular

outcome to an individual.
Effort Performance
Rewards or
Outcomes
EXPECTANCY THEORY
(Text adds “Personal Goals” after Outcomes)
Instrumentality
E P Expectancy or P O Theory Valence
What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place

that I can perform at that my good performance on the potential
the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? (see
if I try? next slide)
Effort Performance Outcomes

EXPECTANCY THEORY
Motivation to Level of
Performance Money (+9)
Exert Promotion (+6)
Effort E or I
Link Production Link Job Satisfaction (+1
Peer
Disapproval (-8)
Partial Test of Expectancy
Theory as Used in Simulation
Rewards or Outcomes
E -Earn high grades

Effort -Feeling of
accomplishment
-Learning something
practical
Implications for Managers
 Needto offer employees valued rewards (high

valences)
 Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth

effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E
link (Provide tools, info, support)
 Need to make sure that you follow through with

reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain
the I link (Differential rewards for performance)
What is the basis of equity theory?
 …the thinking process by which one makes a
decision to exert effort is a function of social
comparison
 Based on individual perceptions of outcomes
(what your receive from expending effort to
complete a task), job inputs (what you bring or
contribute to the task) and perceptions of a
referent person.
Equity Theory: The decision to exert effort is a function
of social comparison
Involves 3 relevant perceptions:
1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task.

(e.g., pay)
2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.
3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE

PERSON.
If: Outcomes Self Outcomes Reference Person

=
Inputs Self Inputs Reference Person
Then equity exists.

How does equity theory work?
 Employees mentally construct outcome-to-input
ratios for themselves and their referent other and
“socially compare”
 If equity exists, you experience no tension and persist
at your current level of effort
 When Outcome Self =/= Outcome Reference person
Input Self Input Reference person

Tension is created and employees are “motivated” to
restore equity
Equity Theory
Equitable Situation:
Outcomes Self = Outcomes Reference Person

Job Inputs Self Job Inputs Reference Person
Inequitable Situations:
A. Under-reward or “Cheated” (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 4/5 < Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
B. Over-reward or “Guilty” (from Self’s point of view)
Outcomes/Inputs Self 5/4 > Outcomes/Inputs Reference Person 5/5
C. Either way, a person is “motivated” to restore equity with R.P.

Examples
You Ref. Person Ways to Reduce Tension
3 < 4 Outcomes a. increase outcomes like
ask for
4 4 Inputs a raise (Δ Your outcome 3 to
a 4)
b. reduce job inputs like  effort
(Δ Your input 4 to a 3)
“Under-reward” (What YOU is, from You’s perspective)
4 > 3 Outcomes a. increase job inputs like work

3 3 Inputs harder (Δ Your input 3 to a
4)
b. reduce outcomes
? refuse pay raise
Restoring
Equity
Under-reward:
Increase outcomes
Reduce inputs
Over-reward:
Increase inputs
Reduce Outcomes (?)
-criticism of equity theory
Other Options:
Leave situation
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence - value or importance placed on a particular

reward
Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality - belief that performance is related

to rewards
Expectancy theory
 Developed by Victor Vroom.

 Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance.
 Instrumentality — belief that successful performance
will be followed by rewards.

 Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and
other work related outcomes.
73
Figure 14.5 Elements in the
expectancy theory of motivation.
74
Expectancy theory
 Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality

(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in
a multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
 If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will
be low.
75
Managerial implications of expectancy
theory—
 To maximize expectancy, managers should:

 Select workers with ability.
 Train workers to use ability.
 Support work efforts.
 Clarify performance goals.
76
theory
 To maximize instrumentality, managers

should:
 Clarify psychological contracts.
 Communicate performance-outcome
possibilities.
 Identify rewards that are contingent on
performance.Management - Chapter 14
77
theory—
 To maximize valence in a positive direction,

managers should:
 Identify individual needs.
 Adjust rewards to match individual needs.
78
Figure 14.6 Managerial implications
of expectancy theory.
79
Expectancy Model of Motivation
Effort
Effort Performance Reward
Perceived effort– Perceived Perceived

performance performance– value of reward
probability reward probability
“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards
will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well
done?”
 Goal-setting theory
 Developed by Edwin Locke.
 Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly
motivating.
 Motivational effects of task goals:
 Provide direction to people in their work.
 Clarify performance expectations.
 Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
81
 Key issues and principles in the goal-setting

process:
 Set specific goals.
 Set challenging goals.
 Build goal acceptance and commitment.
 Clarify goal priorities.
 Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
 Reward goal accomplishment.
82
 Goal-setting theory
 Participation in goal setting …
 Unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.
 Management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation.
 When participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist.
83
MBO/Goal Setting
 My favorite extrinsic mode of motivation.

 Effective managers work with subordinates to set
specific, objective performance standards. All jobs.
 Retails sales easiest.
 Police officer
 Football athletic trainer.
9-22
Figure 9-3
Locke’s Model of Goal Setting

Directing
one’s attention
Regulating
one’s effort
Goals
motivate the Task
individual performance
by... Increasing
one’s persistence
Encouraging the
development of goal-
attainment strategies
or action plans
9-24
Table 9-4
Insights from Goal Setting Research

1) Difficult goals lead to higher performance
2) Specific, difficult goals lead to higher
performance for simple rather than complex
tasks
3) Feedback enhances the effect of specific,
difficult goals
4) Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-
set goals are equally effective
5) Goal commitment and monetary incentives
affect goal-setting outcomes
.
MBO
 Starts at the top. Officers set strategic goals.

Target. 5% revenue Growth through repeat
customers -- quality and choice at a low price.
 Store manager goals
 Dept manager goals
 Floor attendants goals
 Check out goals
Goes beyond goals
 Goals are a tool to both motivate and identify

performance problems (performance management).
 Goals setting done jointly long time frame.
 Monitor (indirectly) if goals are being attained.
 Provide feedback daily, weekly, monthly
Study Question 4: What role does
reinforcement play in motivation?
 Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …
 Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior.
 Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on
future behavior.
 Operant conditioning:
 Developed by B.F. Skinner.
 Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
89
3 Causes of
Motivational Problems
 Belief that effort will not result in performance
 Belief that performance will not result in rewards
 The value a person places on, or the preference a
person has for, certain rewards
Moral Maturity
Moral Maturity - the measure of a person’s cognitive

moral development
Morally mature Morally immature

people behave and act people behave and act
based on universal based on egocentric
ethical principles. motivations.
Reinforcement Theory of
Motivation
 Some view as an explanation of motivation; others
limit it to how motivation is sustained over time.
 Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or

cognitions. Managers can design work environment
to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired
behaviors & weaken undesired behaviors.
“Motivation is a function of the environment”.
 Others allow for cognitions in that people can

observe rewards and punishments applied to others.
Called social learning or vicarious learning.
Motivation as a Form of
Learning:
The Law of Effect
 Behavior that leads
toward rewards tends to
be repeated
 Behavior that tends to
lead toward no rewards or
toward punishment tends
to be avoided
 The type of reinforcer &
the timing (schedule) of
reinforcement are key
Reinforcers Which Strengthen Behavior: What
managers can do to increase the probability of behavior in
the future
a. Positive reinforcement--rewards contingent on exhibiting

the correct behavior.
b. Avoidance Learning—withholding something unpleasant

when a desired behavior is engaged in (e.g., an annoying alarm
is avoided when a machine is used properly, not operating in
reverse). Or, using social learning, noticing how engaging in
some behavior avoids an unpleasant outcome (e.g., arrive on
time and the boss does not yell). Text: Negative reinforcement
Reinforcers Which Weaken Behavior:
What
managers can do to decrease the probability of behavior in
the future
a. Punishment--administering unpleasant
consequences
following an undesirable behavior.
b. Extinction--when there are no rewards for a

behavior which was previously rewarded.
Timing of Reinforcement
a. How quickly reinforcers work depends on
their timing
b. Continuous. Used to “shape” new behaviors
c. But continuous reinforcement is impractical
1. Costly
2. Not as effective in sustaining behavior

over time
Partial Reinforcement
Schedules
1. Based on passage of time
Fixed Interval- Reinforcer given after set period of time.
Ex.: Weekly pay.
Variable Interval- Reinforcer given randomly with passage of time.
Ex.: Surprise bonus based on time.
2. Based on behavior exhibited by the employee (team)

Fixed Ratio- Reinforcers based on behaviors.
Ex.: Piece rate pay.
Variable Ratio- Reinforcers applied randomly after exhibition of
behaviors.
Ex.: A company vacation to Hawaii for all employees after a new
contract landed; spot bonuses.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Spacing or Timing of Reinforcer
Fixed Variable
Based on
# of behaviors
exhibited Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio
(ratio) -piece rate -door to door
sales
Basis for
determining Based on Fixed Interval Variable Interval
frequency of passage -weekly -Occasional
reinforcer of time paycheck praise by
boss
(interval)
Which schedule sustains behavior the longest?
 Operant conditioning strategies:

 Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
 Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
99
 Operant conditioning strategies:

 Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence.
 Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
100
 Successful implementation of positive

reinforcement is based on …
 Law of contingent reinforcement —
 Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited.
 Law of immediate reinforcement —
 Moreimmediate the delivery of a reward, the
more reinforcement value it has.
101
 Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:

 Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
 Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
 Inform everyone about what must be done to get
rewards.
 Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards.
 Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
102
Figure 14.7 Applying reinforcement
strategies: case of total quality
management.
103
 Schedules of reinforcement:
 Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs.
 Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically.
 Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement.
 Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is more
permanent.
104
 Guidelines for using punishment:

 Tell the person what is being done wrong.
 Tell the person what is being done right.
 Match the punishment to the behavior.
 Administer punishment in private.
 Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
105
 Ethical issues in reinforcement:

 Ignores individuality.
 Restricts freedom of choice.
 Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation.
 Key concern is whether it is ethical to not control
behavior well enough to serve both individual and
organizational goals.
106
challenges of motivation in the new
workplace?
 Integrated model of motivation

 Motivation leads to work effort that, when combined
with appropriate individual abilities and organizational
support, leads to performance accomplishment.
 The motivational impact of any rewards received for this
performance accomplishment depends on equity and
reinforcement considerations.
 Ultimately, satisfaction with rewards should lead to
increased motivation to work hard in the future.
107
Figure 14.8 An integrated approach
to motivational dynamics.
108
workplace?
 Pay for performance
 Paying people for performance is consistent with:
 Equity theory.
 Expectancy theory.
 Reinforcement theory.
 Merit pay
 Awards a pay increase in proportion to individual performance
contributions.
 Provides performance contingent reinforcement.
 May not succeed due to weakness in performance appraisal
system or lack of consistency in application.
109
workplace?
 Incentive compensation systems:
 Skill-based pay.
 Links pay to the number of job-relevant skills an
employee masters.
 Bonus pay plans.
 One-time or lump-sum payments based on the
accomplishment of specific performance targets or
some extraordinary contribution.
110
workplace?
 Incentive compensation systems:

 Profit-sharing plans.
 Some or all employees receive a proportion of net
profits earned by the organization.
 Gain-sharing plans.
 Groups of employees share in any savings realized through their
efforts to reduce costs and increase productivity.
 Employee stock ownership plans.
 Employees own stock in the company that employs them.
111
Summary of Motivation Theories
A. View all these approaches as a “bag of tricks.”
Alternatives to choose from, remembering that all are not
compatible.
B. Judge whether you believe each “works.” Rely on the
scientific data presented, your experiences, and your
common sense.
C. Evaluate your prospects for successfully implementing
each one--we all vary in our interpersonal skills and ability
to render social rewards sincerely.
D. The question is not whether each of these approaches
to motivation works, but where and when they work best.
Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights
reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that
permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright
Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information
should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley
& Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies
for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The
author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors,
omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or
from the use of the information contained herein.
COPYRIGHT

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Motivation at Work

Copyright ©2005 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

 Under optimal conditions,

Motivation - the process of arousing and

direction, and persistence of voluntary actions

 Motivation—the forces within the individual that

someone by another person.

naturally as a person works on a task.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

A Model of Intrinsic Motivation

From Sense of Sense of

From Sense of Sense of

McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Job Characteristics Model

 Skill variety  Experienced  High

 Control freaks nightmare

 Often ignored in today’s work environment.

 Many different approaches.

Safety & Security

1. Businesses typically do well satisfying

 Developed by Clayton Alderfer.

growth and development.

Need for Achievement - a

Need for Power - a manifest

Need for Affiliation - a

 Developed by David McClelland.

 Need for Affiliation (nAff)

 Acquired needs theory

 Provides feedback on performance.

 Acquired needs theory

 People high in (nPower) prefer work that:

- Individual responsibility Field sales person

aslow’s Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s

Lower Safety & Security

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to

 contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied

 contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the

 leads to superior performance & effort

1.) Being satisfied with one’s job is

2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction

 Departmental objectives  Security needs

Inequity - the situation in which a person

 Developed by J. Stacy Adams.

 Managerial implications of equity theory—

 Alter the person’s outcomes

1. Expectancy - the perceived probability that effort

2. Instrumentality - the perceived probability that

3. Valence - the anticipated value of a particular

What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place

Effort Performance Outcomes

E -Earn high grades

 Needto offer employees valued rewards (high

 Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth

 Need to make sure that you follow through with

1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task.

2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.

3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a REFERENCE

If: Outcomes Self Outcomes Reference Person

Then equity exists.

Input Self Input Reference person

Outcomes Self = Outcomes Reference Person

A. Under-reward or “Cheated” (from Self’s point of view)