CHAPTER SIX

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

TOOLS & TECHNIQUES
 Chapter objectives

• Understand methods of primary data collection

techniques and tools;

• Know methods of secondary data collection techniques

and tools;
• Perform a data collection plan

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 Introduction
• Data collection means gathering information
to address those basic questions that you have
identified earlier in the proposal stage.

• To plan data collection, you must think about

the questions to be answered and the
information sources available.
• There are many methods available to gather
information, and a wide variety of information
sources.
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 Introduction Cont’d
 All research involves the collection and analysis of data, whether
through reading, observation, measurement, asking questions, or a
combination of these or other strategies.
 The data collected may be :
o Numerical, or may consist of words, or may be a combination
of the two;
o Neither numbers nor words, but consist of, for example,
pictures or artifacts;
o ‘Original’, in the sense that you have collected information
never before collected; or may be ‘secondary’, already put
together by somebody else, but re-used, probably in a different
way, by you;

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 6.1. SOURCES OF INFORMATION

rimary Source Secondary Source

•Data is collected by
researcher herself/himself
•Data is gathered
through questionnaire,
interviews, focus group discussionnns
Observations, etc.
Existing information – records,
reports, program documents,
journals, books, etc.
•Any reference must
be acknowledged
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 6.2. Pre-Data Collection Steps

1. Clearly define the goals and objectives of the data

collection
2. Reach understanding and agreement on operational
definitions and methodology for the data collection plan
3. Ensure data collection (validity and reliability)

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 6.3. Developing a data collection plan

• Identify types of data needed for the study

• Select the types of measures to measure each variable
• Select and/or develop instruments
• Secure written permission to use each instrument
• Undertake pilot test (researcher-developed instrument
& revise plan)
• Develop data collection forms and procedures
• Implement data collection plan

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6.4. Methods Used to Collect Primary
Source Data

1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
3. Observation
4. Focus group discussion
5. Experimentation

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 The most common Useful to collect
data collection instrument quantitative and qualitative
information

Survey
Questionnaire

Should contain 3 elements:

1. Introduction – to explain the objectives
2. Instructions – must be clear, simple language & short
3. User-friendly – avoid difficult or ambiguous questions
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 6.4.1. Survey Questionnaire
• The method of data collection in quantitative studies is Questionnaire
• A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are
recorded by respondents.
• Questionnaires consist of the same set of questions that are asked in the
same way in order that the same information can be gathered.
• Questionnaires, as a technique is mostly used in social surveys to collect
standardized data from a large number of people. However,
questionnaires can not be equated with surveys.
• Questionnaires are just one of the techniques that can be used to collect
data using survey method.
• Questionnaire is different from schedule. In a questionnaire
respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write
down the answers. In a schedule, it is the interviewer who asks the
questions and records the respondent’s replies.

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6.4.1.1. Basic Forms of survey questions:

1. Open-ended Questions 2. Close-ended Questions

– Free-response – Dichotomous question
(Text Open End) – Multiple-choice
– Fill-in relevant – Rank
information – Scale
– The respondent writes – Categorical
down the answer in – Numerical
his/her own words.
– the respondent ticks the
response that best describes
his/her answer.

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 6.4.1.2. Types of survey
questions/Response -category format:
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 Questionnaire-Cont’d
Important points for questionnaire design
• Do make each question brief and the wording clear and concise with minimal
use of jargon.
• Do keep the length of the questionnaire to a minimum;
• Questions should proceed in a logical sequence moving from easy to difficult
questions.
• Avoid making significant memory demands: Example
 How much do you usually spend on textbooks each semester?
• Avoid asking for very precise responses - such as annual salary to the exact
dollar
• Avoid asking for broad generalizations about attitudes or opinions
• Avoid biased, loaded, leading, or sensitive questions. Example: ‘are you a heavy
smoker?’ Instead use ranges:. Please indicate your smoking habit: less than 10
cigarettes a day, between 10 and 20, over 20
Leading: what are your views on the level of VAT in Ethiopia? Is better than ‘ do
you agree that the level of VAT is in Ethiopia is too high?
Ex2: would you agree that there should be controls on the emissions of carbon
dioxide from cars?
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 Questionnaire-Cont’d
Important points for questionnaire design (a list of some dos and
don’ts)
• Don’t ask two questions in one/ double barrelled questions-
with two purposes or interpretations/
Example: How often and how much time do you spend on each
visit?
 Does your department have a special recruitment policy for minorities
and women?
• Don’t ask hypothetical question. Asking someone what he or
she would do under a hypothetical situation ( such as winning
the National Lottery) is unlikely to lead to reliable results.
• It is generally better to use close-ended questions ( for
respondents, and data analysis).
• Do conduct a pilot survey on a small sample so that to test the
reliability and validity of your measure. 15
 Scale of Data Measurement
1. Nominal Scale:
 The nominal scale assigns numbers to label or identify characteristics.
 The numbers assigned have no quantitative meaning beyond indicating the
presence or absence of the characteristic under investigation.
Example: male = 1, Female = 0
2. Ordinal Scale:
 The ordinal scale is the next higher level of measurement precision.
 It ensures that the possible categories can be placed in a specific order (rank) or
in some ‘natural’ way.
Example 1: responses for health service provision can be
coded as 1, 2, 3 and 4: 1 for poor – 2 for moderate – 3 for
good – 4 for excellent.
Example 2: Which of the following indicate your salary?
1. < 1000 gross per month
2. 1000-3000 gross per month
3. 3000-5000 gross per month
4. 5000-7000 gross per month
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5. > 7000 gross per month
 Scale of Data Measurement
3. Interval Scale:
 The interval scale is the second highest level of measurement
precision.
 Unlike the nominal and ordinal scales of measurement, the
numbers in an interval scale are obtained as a result of a
measurement process and have some units of measurement.
 The differences between any two adjacent points on any part of
the scale are meaningful.
 A point can not be considered to be a multiple of another, that is,
ratios have no meaningful interpretation.
 Zero has no meaningful value.
Example: There is a meaningful difference between 30 degree Celsius and 12
degree Celsius.
o A temperature of 20 degree Celsius can not be interpreted as twice as hot as
a temperature of 10 degree Celsius.
o A temperature of 0 degree Celsius does not mean no temperature.
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 Scale of Data Measurement

4. Ratio Scale:
 The ratio scale represents the highest form of measurement
precision.

 It possesses the additional feature that ratios and zero have

meaningful interpretation.

 Furthermore, there is no restriction on the kind of statistics that

can be computed for ratio scaled data.
For example: the height of individuals (in centimeters), the annual
profit of firms (in Birr) , age of an individual, etc represent ratio
scales.
Example: “What is your gross income per month? “Birr 5000”

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Pre-testing the Questionnaire
  The complete version of the questionnaire is administered to a few
respondents who possess identical characteristics with that of
respondents in the final study.
o Question content
o Question wording
o Question format and response coding
o Sequencing of questions
o Questionnaire Checklist

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Reliability and validity of data:

  Reliability is the consistency of your measurement instrument.

 The degree to which an instrument measures the same way each
time when it is used under the same condition with the same
subjects.

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Reliability and validity of data Cont’d:
•  Reliability alone does not mean that you have a good
instrument.
• Imagine the following reliable instrument:

Every morning Ms. X gets on the One day an elephant got on

scale and every morning it reads scale and it still reads
126.4 Kg. 126.4 kg!
It seems pretty reliable since Ms. Is this scale reliable? Yes
X hasn’t gained or lost any
weight.
It does measure the same
way under the same
conditions.

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Reliability and validity of data Cont’d:

 How do we know whether our data collection instrument

is reliable?

 Pilot test to be conducted and the data at this period to be

tested using Cronbach’s Alpha.

o If the computed value () >=0.7(70%), the instrument to be

considered as reliable.

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Reliability and validity of data Cont’d:

 Validity asks:
 If an instrument measures what it is supposed to and how
“true” or accurate the measurement is.

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Reliability and validity of data Cont’d:

What to be done to ensure validity?

 The data collected during pilot-test must be analyzed
in line to each research question to ensure whether the
research question can be answered or not?

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Essential components of the Questionnaires

1- Covering letter:
• It is essential that ,we send a covering letter along with the
questionnaire which must cover the following aspects.
a) Introduce your self and the institution that you are representing
b) Describe in brief the main objective and usefulness of your
study
c) Assure anonymity of the information provided by the
respondent
d) Provide your contact number in case some clarification is
required.
e) Give a return address for the questionnaire and a dead line for
its return
f) Thank them for participation in the study

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 Essential components of the Questionnaires Cont’d

 A good introduction is absolutely necessary (identity of the

researcher, the purpose of the study, assuring confidentiality, thank
the respondent for taking the time to respondent the survey).
o A clear instruction on how to complete the items in each section
must be provided.
• Concluding the questionnaire
 The questionnaire ends on a courteous note, reminding the
respondent to check that all the items have been completed.
Example: I sincerely appreciate your commitment and cooperation.
Please check to make sure that you have not skipped any of the
questions.

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 Essential components of the Questionnaires Cont’d
Sample Questionnaire---Cover letter
GAGE College
Department of Business Administration

Questionnaire to be filled by residents

Dear respondent;
In partial fulfilment of MA degree in Business Administration, this questionnaire is
designed to study aspects of life at work. The information you will provide is
helpful to better understand the quality of work life. Because you are the one who
can give a correct picture of how you experience your work life. Thus, I request
you to answer the questions frankly and honestly.

Your response will be kept strictly confidential. Only the researcher will have access
to the information you give.
Thank you very much for your time and cooperation.

Researcher’s name and address:

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Essential components of the Questionnaires Cont’d

2-Formulation of the questionnaire:

a) Use simple and everyday language:
 The language should be clear and understandable.
 Quite possible our respondent may not be well
educated.
 If the language is not understandable then many
respondents will not answer or answer without
understanding.
 Organize your questions to different categories using
your basic research questions

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Essential components of the Questionnaires Cont’d

b) Do not use ambiguous question: An

ambiguous question is one which has more
than one meaning. This will result in different
answers.
c) Do not ask a double barreled question: It is a
question within a question.

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6.4.1.5. Modes of Survey Administration

• Telephone surveys
• Self-administered questionnaires distributed
by mail, e-mail, or websites
• Administered questionnaires, common in
person by researcher or trained data collectors
• If respondents cannot write/read, responses to
be recorded by researcher/enumerators

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 Effective way Involves verbal
of gathering and non-verbal
Qualitative information communications

INTERVIEW

Can be conducted
face to face, by telephone,
online or through e-mail.

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 6.4.2. Interview
 An interview is a dialogue, a conversation -Verbally exchange of
Information
Types of Interview: structured , and semi-structured
 Structured interview
o Procedure to be followed is standardized and is determined in advance
of interview - rigid procedure.
o Set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized recording
technique (audio or digital recorders)
o The same types of questions are presented in the same order to each
interviewee
o The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or change the order of
questions to be presented.
o Structured interview is those conducted when it is known at the outset
what information is needed.

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 Interview types Cont’d

o Semi-structured interview: questions can be shaped

depending on the responses of interviewee.
 The interviewer can probe more questions to interviewee in the
process of interview.

 Questions are not standardized.

o Schedule interview is a device consisting of a set of

questions, which are asked and filled in by the enumerators
who are specially trained for the purpose.

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 Interview-Cont’d

Techniques of Interviewing
  Preparation for interview, self-presentation: objective of the study, its
background, how the respondent was selected, the confidential nature of the
interview, the beneficial values of the research findings.
 Conduct for the interview – remember and apply your communication skills
here (attentive, non-judgmental), ask the questions properly, probe
meaningfully.
 The technique of stimulating respondents to answer more fully and
relevantly is termed probing.
 Examples for probing styles: I see, or yes, a neutral question or comment:
how do you mean?, can you tell me more about you thinking on that?
Anything else?
• Recording of the interview; record the responses accurately,
 record response as they occur
 Use some shorthand system (abbreviating words, key words)
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 Challenges of Interviews
• Can be expensive, labor intensive, and time
consuming.

• Selective hearing on the part of the interviewer

may miss information that does not conform to
pre-existing beliefs.

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 6.4.3. Focus group discussion
 Focus groups may be called discussion groups or group
interviews.
o A number of people are asked to come together in a
group to discuss a certain issue (8-12 participants).
o The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator
who introduces the topic, asks specific questions,
controls digressions and stops break-away
conversations.
o The moderator should make sure that no one person
dominates the discussion whilst trying to ensure that
each of the participants makes a contribution.
o Focus groups may be recorded using visual or audio
recording equipment.
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 6.4.4. Observation
Observation Method
 One or more persons observe what is occurring in
some real - life situation , without asking questions of
respondents.

 Observation method appears to be very valuable

instrument in a wide range of research studies.
• Examples: Cultural study, traffic counts and
direction of traffic flows.

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 Observation-Cont’d
 Types of observation on the basis of three perspectives:
1. Whether an observer is physically present or not (Direct or indirect
observation)----EX: in areas of health & Education
2. Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the subject
o If researcher’s identity is concealed /nor revealed: Disguised/masked
observation
o If researcher's identity is revealed to the subject: Undisguised observation
3. Whether an examiner takes part in activity or not
o If a researcher takes part in activity: participant observation—for culture-

o If a researcher does not take part in activity: Non-participant observation

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 Observation-Examples
• See what is happening:
o traffic patterns
o land use patterns
o layout of city and rural areas
o quality of housing
o condition of roads
o conditions of buildings
o who goes to a health clinic

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 6.5. Collection of secondary data

Uses of secondary data:

 Fill a need for a specific reference on some point/to test other
findings.
 Example: from a sample survey, we could estimate the
percentage of the population that has certain age and income
characteristics. These estimate could then be checked against
census study/secondary data.
 Can be a rich source of hypotheses

 May be used as the sole basis for a research study.

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 Collection of secondary data-Cont’d

 Studies made by others for their own purposes:

 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data

 Usually published data are available in:
 Publications of the central, regional and local governments;
 Publications of foreign governments or of international bodies
 Technical and trade journals
 Books, magazines, and newspapers
 Reports and publications of various organizations
 Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists
 Public records and statistics, historical documents
Examples: Government surveys (census of employment, population, family expenditure
survey), Government legislation, historical records, media documents (news papers,
magazines, television and radio), personal documents.

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 Collection of secondary data-cont’d
Reasons for using secondary data
 Because collecting primary data is difficult, time consuming, and
expensive.
 Because you can never have enough data
 Because it may shed light on, or complement, the primary data
you have collected.
 Because it may confirm, modify or contradict your findings.
 Because it allows you to focus your attention on analysis and
interpretation.
 Because you cannot conduct a research study in isolation from
what has already been done.

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 Collection of secondary data-cont’d
Advantages
• Can be found more quickly and
cheaply than primary data
• Not Costly and time consuming
Less invasion of privacy
Easy in making comparative
analyses : Example: The impact
of Democracy on corruption
Disadvantages
•Information may not meet one’s
specific needs
• Definitions will differ, units of
measures are different
• Is often out of date
• Data may not be available.
• The original data may contain
errors
• May be unsuitable or inadequate
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 Collection of secondary data-cont’d

Precautions of using secondary data

Check for the reliability and suitability of data
o Who collected the data?
o What were the sources of data?
o Were they collected by using proper methods?
o At what time were they collected?
o Was there any bias of the compiler?
o What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

Adequacy of data
o One should use the available data only when they are found
to be adequate.

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 Choosing your methods

 By now you should have thought quite seriously about

your research methodology. This will help you to
decide upon the most appropriate methods for your
research.
o For example, if you’re leaning towards quantitative
research, survey work in the form of a
questionnaire or structured interviews may be
appropriate.
o If you’re interested in action research, it might be
useful to find out more about semi-structured
interviewing or focus groups.

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• End of Chapter Six

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