1

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions

Deduction and Induction

CGE14411
LECTURE 4
Expected Outcomes of this Lecture 2

 After the lecture, you should be able to

 Explain the concepts of necessary and
sufficient condition
 Explain the difference between
deductive and inductive arguments
Is it true? 3

Even though you have

studied for an exam, you
may not get a pass.
So, why should a student
study for an exam?
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 4

 To say that one thing is a condition ( 條件 ) for

another is to say that the one thing is involved in
making the second thing happen.
 The concepts of necessary ( 必要 ) and sufficient ( 充
分 ) conditions help us understand and explain the
different kinds of connections between things and
how they relate to each other
Exercise 5

 For a man to survive,

A. Is it necessary to
have water?
B. Is it sufficient to
have water?
Exercise 6

 Scientistshave
discovered water ice
on Mars surface
 Can we conclude that
there is living
organism on Mars?
A. Necessary Condition 7

 P is a necessary condition for Q

 It is impossible to have Q without P
 For Q to exist, there must be P
 Unless P exists, there is not Q
Q is true only if P is true
 Examples
 Having four sides (P) is necessary for being a square (Q)
 Unless there is oxygen (P), you cannot survive (Q)
The Presence of Oxygen (P), The 8
Presence of Human Beings (Q)
 Oxygen is necessary for human beings.
 Human beings must (cannot) live with (without) oxygen. (Q
true then P true)
 If there are human beings, then there must be oxygen. (If Q,
then P)
 It is impossible for human beings to live without oxygen. (Not
P, Not Q)
 Unless there is oxygen, human beings cannot survive. (Not P,
Not Q)
 Human beings can survive only if there is oxygen.
To show P is a necessary condition of Q 9

 Ifyou cannot find a situation where Q is

present where P is not, then P is likely to
be a necessary condition of Q

• Can you find a living man who can

live without oxygen?
• No. He is a mummy, not a living
man.
• Therefore, oxygen is likely a
necessary condition for living
human beings
To show P is NOT a necessary condition for Q
1
0

 If you can find a situation where Q is present but P is not, then P

is not necessary condition for Q.
 This case is called a counter-example

But we find a
case of Q where
P is a necessary there is no P
condition for Q

So you are
wrong!
 Being rich (P) is
All those well-respected
necessary for being well-
(Q) are rich (P)
respected (Q)

But

Counter-example

Being rich (P) is not

A ________ can be well-
necessary for being well-
respected but is not rich
respected (Q)

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Living on the land (P) is a
All mammals (Q)
necessary condition for
live on the land (P)
being a mammal (Q)

But
Counter-example

Living on the land (P) is _________ are

not a necessary mammals, but they live
condition for being a in the sea (not live on
mammal (Q) the land)

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 1
3

 To apply logic and mathematical symbols, if

P is a necessary condition for Q, we can say
If Q is true, P is true
If Q, then P
Q implies P
Q P
If not P, then not Q
~P  ~Q (~stands for “not”)
 1
4

 Some state of affairs may have more than one

necessary condition.
 For example, to be a good teacher, the necessary
conditions are
 Knowledge of subject matter
 Ability to communicate and help others learn
 Care for students etc.
B. Sufficient Conditions 1
5

 The idea of a sufficient condition is that the state of affair

alone is enough to make something happen
 If X is a sufficient condition for Y, then
 If X is present, then Y must also be present
 It is impossible to have X without Y
 Examples
 Getting 40 marks (X) by your own effort is sufficient for
getting a pass (Y) in CGE14401
 Heating pure water to 100oC at normal pressure (X) is
sufficient to turn it into steam (Y)
To show that X is a sufficient condition for Y
1
6

 If you cannot find a situation where X is present where Y is

not, then X is likely to be a sufficient condition of Y

• Can you find someone

who got 40% but was not
given a pass?
• No.
• It is therefore likely that
40% is sufficient to make
you pass
To show that X is not sufficient for Y 1
7

 To show that X is not sufficient for Y, we look for

cases where X is present but Y is not
 That case is a counter-example
 Through analyzing that example, you can find out
other conditions to complement X to make Y happen
 If a person has high
Intelligence and abilities
intelligence and abilities,
are sufficient conditions
that person must be a
for a good leader
good leader

But
Counter-example
What does this case lack
to make him/her a good ___________ has high
leader? intelligence and abilities,
 Other necessary but he is not a good
conditions leader

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 1
9

While it is easier to find sufficient

conditions in physical phenomena, it is
more difficult to find this relation in
social phenomena
Rephrase the statement using “sufficient 2
condition” 0

 If you reduce your caloric

intake to between 1000-
1200 calories per day, it
is 100% guaranteed that
you can lose 0.5 Kg per
week.
 2
1

 Reducing your caloric intake

to between 1000-1200
calories per day is a
sufficient condition for
losing 0.5 Kg per week.
Rephrase the statement using 2
2
“sufficient condition”
Even though you have
studied for an exam, you
may not get a pass.
So, why should a student
study for an exam?
 2
3

Studying hard is not a

sufficient condition for getting
a pass. So, why should a
student study for an exam?
 2
4

 To apply logic and mathematical

symbols, if X is a sufficient condition
for Y, we can say
If X is true, Y is true
If X, then Y
X implies Y
X Y
In Real Life: 2
5

 Four possible situations

X is necessary but not sufficient for Y
X is sufficient but not necessary for Y
X is both necessary and sufficient for Y
X is neither necessary nor sufficient for Y
 2
6

X Necessary Sufficient Y
Having four square
sides
Having a son being a parent

Being an bachelor
unmarried man

Being a rich a happy person

person
"Is a necessary condition for" and
“Is a sufficient condition for" 2
are converse relations 7

 If x is a necessary condition for y, then y is a sufficient

condition for x.
 Example
 Since the presence of oxygen is necessary for the survival
of human beings, it follows that the existence of human
life is sufficient for us to conclude there is oxygen.
 Since every square must have four sides (i.e. since having
four sides is a necessary condition for being a square),
being a square is a sufficient condition (but not a
necessary one) for something's having four sides
Converse Relations 2
8

X Necessary Sufficient Y
Having four square
sides 
Having a son
 being a parent

Being an   bachelor
unmarried man

Being a rich a happy person

person
 Which Ones are True? 2
9

A. x's being a mother is a sufficient condition for x's being a female.

B. x's being a mother is a necessary condition for x's being a female.

C. x's being a female is a sufficient condition for x's being a mother.

D. x's being a female is a necessary condition for x's being a mother.

E. x's being greater than 15 is a sufficient condition for x's being less than 20.

F. x's being greater than 15 is a necessary condition for x's being greater than 20.

G. x's being greater than 20 is a sufficient condition for x's being greater than 15.

H. x's being less than 20 is a necessary condition for x's being greater than 15.
Why we need to understand this? 3
The Conditional Fallacy 0

 Many people have such a confusion:

not sufficient means not necessary.
 For example, we often hear this kind of
argument:
 Studying hard does not guarantee that you can
pass the exam. Therefore, it is not necessary to
study hard.
 3
1

1. Studying hard is not a sufficient condition for getting a pass.

2. However, if “passing an exam” is something you think is

important

3. And studying hard has a high probability of getting you a

“pass”

4. It is still worthwhile to study hard.

 3
2

DEDUCTIVE ( 演繹的 ) AND

INDUCTIVE ( 歸納的 ) REASONING
Deductive Argument 3
3

 A person is performing deductive

reasoning when he or she argues from the
more general information to arrive at a
more specific conclusion.
Structure
 It is dangerous to drive on icy streets. General principle
 The streets are icy now.
Specific situation
 So it is dangerous to drive now.
Principle applied to
specific situation
 All humans cannot fly General principle
 Steve Jobs is a human
Specific situation
 Steve Jobs cannot fly. 
Principle applied to
specific situation

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Inductive Argument 3
5

 A kind of reasoning that bases on specific

incidents and makes a broader generalization that
is considered probable, though it is recognized
that the conclusion may not be absolutely
accurate.
Domestic helpers from that
Tourists from that country country are not reliable
are all bad-mannered

The noodle sold in that

chain store is delicious!
 3
6

 The chair in the living room is red. Specific situation

 The chair in the dining room is red. Specific situation
Specific situation
 The chair in the bedroom is red.
Generalization
 All chairs in the house are red.

Many specific
 Every time you eat peanuts, your throat situations
swells up and you can't breath.
 So, you are allergic to peanuts. Generalization
Deductive Vs Inductive 3
7

 The support given by the premises in deductive or

inductive arguments for the conclusion is different

Deductive :
 The conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises with (logical) necessity.
 This necessity is absolute and not a matter of degree.

Inductive :
 The conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises only with a certain
degree of probability.
 This probability comes as a matter of degree.
 Examples
Deductive:
Is this
Mary is a mother. person male
or female?
All mothers are female.
------------------------------------
Therefore, Mary is a female.

Very certain

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Inductive:
• In this semester, Peter leaves
home for class at 8:00 am and
he has never been late.
--------------------------------------------
• Therefore, if Peter leaves home
for class at 8:00 am, he will not
be late.

Probable but not certain

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 Deductive
If all the premises are true,
then the conclusion must be
true.
The conclusion follows
necessarily ( 必然 ) from the
premises.
i.e., the premises provide
conclusive ground for the truth
of the conclusion.
If we accept all the premises,
we must accept the conclusion.
Inductive
If all the premises are true, then
the conclusion is probably true,
i.e., more likely to be true than
false.
The conclusion follows probably
from the premises.
i.e., the premises provide good
but not conclusive evidence for
the truth of the conclusion.
If we accept all the premises, it is
reasonable for us to accept the
conclusion, at least tentatively.
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Why we need to distinguish deductive 4
and inductive reasoning? 1

 Deductive reasoning
 If valid, provides definite conclusion.
 There are rules we can learn to avoid wrong
reasoning.

 Inductive reasoning
 Cannot provide definite conclusion, but is
essential for giving general patterns.
 Must recognize that the general pattern is not
definite.
 4
2

 Inargumentative essays, we usually follow

deductive reasoning
 We will discuss how to evaluate deductive
arguments in lecture 5.
Reading for the week 4
3

 An introduction to critical thinking and

creativity, Chapter 4 “Necessary and
sufficient conditions” (required)