Lecture-18-19-20 Introduction To Digital Control Systems Dr. Imtiaz Hussain

Digital Control Systems (DCS)
Lecture-18-19-20
Introduction to Digital Control Systems
Dr. Imtiaz Hussain

Associate Professor
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro, Pakistan
email: imtiaz.hussain@faculty.muet.edu.pk
URL :http://imtiazhussainkalwar.weebly.com/
1
Lecture Outline
• Introduction
• Difference Equations
• Review of Z-Transform
• Inverse Z-transform
• Relations between s-plane and z-plane
• Solution of difference Equations
2
Recommended Book
• M.S. Fadali, “Digital Control
Engineering – Analysis and
Design”, Elsevier, 2009. ISBN: 13:
978-0-12-374498-2
Professor of Electrical Engineering

Area of Specialization: Control Systems
3
Introduction
• Digital control offers distinct advantages over analog
control that explain its popularity.
• Accuracy: Digital signals are more accurate than their
analogue counterparts.
• Implementation Errors: Implementation errors are
negligible.
• Flexibility: Modification of a digital controller is possible
without complete replacement.
• Speed: Digital computers may yield superior performance
at very fast speeds
• Cost: Digital controllers are more economical than
analogue controllers. 4
Structure of a Digital Control System
5
Examples of Digital control Systems
Closed-Loop Drug Delivery System
6
Examples of Digital control Systems
Aircraft Turbojet Engine
7
Difference Equation vs Differential Equation
• A difference equation expresses the change in

some variable as a result of a finite change in
another variable.
• A differential equation expresses the change in

some variable as a result of an infinitesimal
change in another variable.
8
Differential Equation
• Following figure shows a mass-spring-damper-system. Where y is
position, F is applied force D is damping constant and K is spring
constant.
𝐹 ( 𝑡 )=𝑚 𝑦¨ (𝑡 ) + 𝐷 ˙𝑦 ( 𝑡 )+ 𝐾𝑦(𝑡 )

• Rearranging above equation in following form

1 𝐷 𝐾
𝑦¨ ( 𝑡 )= 𝐹 ( 𝑡 ) − 𝑦˙ ( 𝑡 ) 𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
9
Differential Equation
1 𝐷 𝐾
𝑦¨ ( 𝑡 )= 𝐹 𝑡 − 𝑦˙ 𝑡
( ) ( ) 𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
• Rearranging above equation in following form
𝐹 1 𝑦
¨ 𝑦
˙ 𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
(𝑡 )

𝑚
𝐷
−
𝑚
𝐾
−
𝑚
10
Difference Equation
1 𝐷 𝐾
𝑦 (𝑘 +2)= 𝐹 (𝑘 )− 𝑦 (𝑘 +1) 𝑦 (𝑘 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹
(𝑘 ) 1 𝑦 (𝑘 +2) 1 ) 1 𝑦 (𝑘 )

𝑚 𝑧 𝑧
𝐷
−
𝑚
𝐾
−
𝑚
11
Difference Equations
• Difference
equations arise in problems where the
independent variable, usually time, is assumed to have
a discrete set of possible values.
𝑦 ( 𝑘+𝑛) +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 ( 𝑘 +𝑛−1)+…+𝑎1 𝑦 ( 𝑘 +1 )+ 𝑎0 𝑦 ( 𝑘 )=𝑏𝑛𝑢 ( 𝑘+𝑛) +𝑏𝑛−1𝑢 (𝑘 +𝑛−1 )+ …+𝑏1 𝑢( 𝑘+1)+ 𝑏0 𝑢 ( 𝑘 )

• Where coefficients , ,… and , ,… are constant.

• is forcing function
12
•
• Example-1: For each of the following difference equations,
determine the (a) order of the equation. Is the equation (b)
linear, (c) time invariant, or (d) homogeneous?
13
•
• Example-1: For each of the following difference equations, determine
the (a) order of the equation. Is the equation (b) linear, (c) time
invariant, or (d) homogeneous?
Solution:
a) The equation is second order.
b) All terms enter the equation linearly
c) All the terms if the equation have constant coefficients.
Therefore the equation is therefore LTI.
d) A forcing function appears in the equation, so it is
nonhomogeneous.
14
•
determine the (a) order of the equation. Is the equation (b) linear,
(c) time invariant, or (d) homogeneous?
Solution:
a) The equation is 4th order.
b) All terms are linear
c) The second coefficient is time dependent
d) There is no forcing function therefore the equation is
homogeneous.
15
•
determine the (a) order of the equation. Is the equation (b)
linear, (c) time invariant, or (d) homogeneous?
Solution:
a) The equation is 1st order.
b) Nonlinear
c) Time invariant
d) Homogeneous
16
Z-Transform
• Difference equations can be solved using classical methods analogous
to those available for differential equations.
• Alternatively, z-transforms provide a convenient approach for solving LTI

equations.
• The z-transform is an important tool in the analysis and design of

discrete-time systems.
• It simplifies the solution of discrete-time problems by converting

LTI difference equations to algebraic equations and convolution to
multiplication.
• Thus, it plays a role similar to that served by Laplace transforms in

continuous-time problems. 17
Z-Transform
• Given the causal sequence {u0, u1, u2, …, uk}, its z-
transform is defined as
𝑈 ( 𝑧 )=𝑢 𝑜+𝑢 1 𝑧 −1 +𝑢2 𝑧 − 2+𝑢 𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑘
∞
−𝑘
𝑈 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑢𝑘 𝑧
𝑘 =0
• The variable z −1 in the above equation can be

regarded as a time delay operator.
18
Z-Transform
• Example-2: Obtain the z-transform of the
sequence
u  
k k 0  1, 1, 3, 2, 0, 4, 0, 0, 0,...
19
Relation between Laplace Transform and Z-Transform
• Given the impulse train representation of a discrete-time
signal
𝑢(𝑡 ) 𝑢∗ (𝑡 )
𝑢(𝑡 ) 𝑢∗ (𝑡 )
𝑈
( 𝑠) ∗ (𝑠 )
𝑈
∗ ( 𝑡 )=𝑢 𝑜 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) +𝑢1 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 𝑇 ) +𝑢2 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 2𝑇 ) +…+𝑢𝑘 𝛿 ( 𝑡 −𝑘 𝑇 )

𝑢
∞
∗
𝑢 ( 𝑡 )=∑ 𝑢 𝑘 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑇 )
𝑘=0
20
Relation between Laplace Transform and Z-Transform
∗ ( 𝑡 )=𝑢 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) +𝑢 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 𝑇 ) +𝑢 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 2𝑇 ) +…+𝑢 𝛿 ( 𝑡 −𝑘 𝑇 )
𝑢
• 𝑜 1 2 𝑘
• The Laplace Transform of above equation is

𝑈 ∗ ( 𝑠 ) =𝑢 +𝑢 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇
+𝑢 𝑒 −2 𝑠𝑇
+…+𝑢 𝑒− 𝑘 𝑠𝑇
𝑜 1 2 𝑘
∞
∗ −𝑘𝑠𝑇
𝑈 ( 𝑠 ) = ∑ 𝑢𝑘 𝑒 ( 𝐴)
𝑘 =0
• And the Z-transform of is given as
∞
−𝑘
𝑈 ( 𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑢𝑘 𝑧 (𝐵 )
• Comparing (A) and (B) yields 𝑘 =0
𝑧=𝑒𝑠𝑇
21
Conformal Mapping between s-plane to z-plane
•

𝑧=𝑒𝑠𝑇
• Where .
(𝜎 + 𝑗 𝜔)𝑇

𝑧=𝑒
• Then in polar coordinates is given by
𝑧=𝑒𝜎 𝑇 𝑒 𝑗 𝜔 𝑇

|𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇 ∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
22
•• We
will discuss following cases to map given points on s-plane
to z-plane.
– Case-1: Real pole in s-plane
– Case-2: Imaginary Pole in s-plane
– Case-3: Complex Poles
𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑧− 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

23
•• Case-1:
Real pole in s-plane
• We know
|𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
• Therefore
∠ 𝑧=0

24
Case-1: Real pole in s-plane |𝑧|=𝑒
𝜎𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
When
|𝑧|=𝑒 0 𝑇 =1
∠ 𝑧=0 𝑇 =0
𝑠=0

1

𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
25
Case-1: Real pole in s-plane |𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
When
−∞ 𝑇

|𝑧|=𝑒 =0

∠ 𝑧=0
0

−∞

26
Case-1: Real pole in s-plane |𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
Consider
−𝑎 𝑇

|𝑧|=𝑒

∠ 𝑧=0
0
1

−𝑎

27
•• Case-2:
Imaginary pole in s-plane
• We know
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
• Therefore
|𝑧|=1
∠
𝑧=± 𝜔𝑇
28
Case-2: Imaginary pole in s-plane |𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
Consider
|𝑧|=𝑒 0 𝑇 =1
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
1

𝑠=
𝑗𝜔
𝜔𝑇

−1
1

−1

29
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
When
|𝑧|=𝑒 0 𝑇 =1
∠
𝑧=− 𝜔𝑇
1

−1
𝑇 1
−𝜔
𝑠=−
𝑗𝜔
−1

30
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇
When
|𝑧|=𝑒 0 𝑇 =1
∠
𝑧=± 𝜋 𝝎𝑻 =𝝅

𝑗 𝜔 1

𝑇
𝜋

−1
1

𝑗𝜔
−
𝑇 −1

31
• Anything in the Alias/Overlay region in the S-Plane will be
overlaid on the Z-Plane along with the contents of the strip
between .
32
• In order to avoid aliasing, there must be nothing in this region, i.e. there
must be no signals present with radian frequencies higher than w = p/T,
or cyclic frequencies higher than f = 1/2T.
• Stated another way, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the
highest frequency present (Nyquist rate).
33
Case-3: Complex pole in s-plane |𝑧|=𝑒 𝜎 𝑇
∠
𝑧=𝜔𝑇

∠
𝑧=± 𝜔𝑇
1

−1
1

−1

34
Mapping regions of the s-plane onto
the z-plane
35
the z-plane
36
the z-plane
37
38
39
Example-3
• Map
following s-plane poles onto z-plane assume
(T=1). Also comment on the nature of step
response in each case.
40
z-Transforms of Standard Discrete-Time Signals
• The following identities are used repeatedly to derive several
important results.
𝑛 𝑛 +1
𝑘 1− 𝑎
∑ 𝑎 = 1− 𝑎 , 𝑎 ≠ 1
𝑘=0
∞
1
𝑘
∑ 𝑎 = 1− 𝑎 ,|𝑎|≠ 1
𝑘 =0
41
• Unit Impulse
𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) = 1 , 𝑘 =0

{
0, 𝑘≠0
• Z-transform of the signal

𝛿 ( 𝑧 ) =1
42
• Sampled Step
𝑢 (𝑘 )= 1 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

{
0 , 𝑘 <0
• or

• Z-transform of the signal

𝑛
−1 −2 −3 −𝑘 −𝑘
𝑈 ( 𝑧 )=1+ 𝑧 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 +…+ 𝑧 =∑ 𝑧
𝑘 =0

43
• Sampled Ramp
𝑟 (𝑘 )= 𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 0

{0, 𝑘<0
𝑟 ( 𝑘 )
……

𝑘
• Z-transform of the signal 0 1 2 3
𝑧
𝑈 ( 𝑧 )= 2
( 𝑧 − 1)
44
• Sampled Parabolic Signal
𝑘
𝑎 , 𝑘 ≥0
𝑢 (𝑘 )=
{
0 , 𝑘 <0
• Then
𝑛
−1 2 −2 3 −3 𝑘 −𝑘 −𝑘
𝑈 ( 𝑧 )=1+𝑎𝑧 + 𝑎 𝑧 +𝑎 𝑧 + …+𝑎 𝑧 =∑ (𝑎𝑧)
𝑘 =0
45
Exercise
• Find the z-transform of following causal sequences.
𝑓 ( 𝑘 )=2 × 1 ( 𝑘 )+ 4 × 𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) , 𝑘 =0,1,2 , …

𝑓 ( 𝑘 ) = 4 , 𝑘 =2,3 , …

{ 0 , 𝑜𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
46
Exercise
𝑓 ( 𝑘 )=2 ×1 ( 𝑘 )+ 4 × 𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) , 𝑘 =0,1,2 , …

Solution: Using Linearity Property
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=𝒵 {2 ×1 ( 𝑘 ) +4 ×𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) }

𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=2× 𝒵 { 1 ( 𝑘 ) } +4 × 𝒵 {𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) }
𝑧
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )= 2× +4
𝑧 −1
6 𝑧 −4
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=
𝑧 −1 47
Exercise
4 , 𝑘 =2,3 , …
𝑓 ( 𝑘 )=
{ 0 , 𝑜𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution: The given sequence is a sampled step starting at k-2 rather than
k=0 (i.e. it is delayed by two sampling periods). Using the delay property,
we have
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=𝒵 {4 ×1 ( 𝑘 −2 ) }
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=4 𝑧 −2 𝒵 {1 ( 𝑘 −2 ) }
−2 𝑧 4
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=4 𝑧 =
𝑧 −1 𝑧 ( 𝑧 −1) 48
Inverse Z-transform
1. Long Division: We first use long division to
obtain as many terms as desired of the z-
transform expansion.
2. Partial Fraction: This method is almost identical

to that used in inverting Laplace transforms.
However, because most z-functions have the
term z in their numerator, it is often convenient
to expand F(z)/z rather than F(z).
49
Inverse Z-transform
• Example-4: Obtain the inverse z-transform of
the function
𝑧+1
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )= 2
𝑧 + 0.2 𝑧 +0.1
• Solution
• 1. Long Division
50
Inverse Z-transform
𝑧+1
• 1. Long Division 𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=
𝑧 2+ 0.2 𝑧 +0.1
• Thus
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=0+ 𝑧 −1+ 0.8 𝑧 − 2 −0.26 𝑧 − 3+ …
• Inverse z-transform
𝑓 ( 𝑘 ) = {0 , 1 , 0.8 ,− 0.26 , … }

51
Inverse Z-transform
the function
𝑧+ 1
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )= 2
𝑧 + 0.3 𝑧 +0.02
• Solution
• 2. Partial Fractions
𝐹 (𝑧) 𝑧 +1
=
𝑧 𝑧 ( 𝑧 2 +0.3 𝑧 +0.02)
𝐹 (𝑧) 𝑧 +1
=
𝑧 2
𝑧 ( 𝑧 +0.1 𝑧 +0.2 𝑧+ 0.02) 52
Inverse Z-transform
𝐹 (𝑧) 𝑧 +1
=
𝑧 𝑧 ( 𝑧 +0.1)(𝑧 +0.2)
𝐹 (𝑧) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧+ 0.1 𝑧 +0.2
F ( z) 1 1
A z  F (0)    50
z z 0 0.1 0.2 0.02
F ( z) 1 z 1  0.1  1
B  ( z  0.1)  ( z  0.1)   90
z z  0.1 z ( z  0.1)( z  0.2) z  0.1 (0.1)(0.1  0.2)
F ( z) 1 z 1  0.2  1
C  ( z  0.2)  ( z  0.2)   40
z z  0.2 z ( z  0.1)( z  0.2) z  0.2
(0.2)(0.2  0.1)
53
Inverse Z-transform
𝐹 ( 𝑧 ) 50 90 40
= − +
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 +0.1 𝑧 +0.2
90 𝑧 40 𝑧
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=50 − +
𝑧 +0.1 𝑧 +0.2
• Taking inverse z-transform (using z-transform table)
𝑘 𝑘
𝑓 ( 𝑘 )=50 𝛿 ( 𝑘 ) −90 ( −0.1 ) + 40 ( −0. 2 )
54
Inverse Z-transform
the function
𝑧
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=
(𝑧 +0.1)( 𝑧+ 0.2)( 𝑧 +0.3)
• Solution
• 2. Partial Fractions
55
Inverse Z-transform
• Example-6: Obtain the inverse z-transform of the
function 𝑧
𝐹 ( 𝑧 )=
(𝑧 +0.1)( 𝑧+ 0.2)( 𝑧 +0.3)
• Solution
• The most convenient method to obtain the partial fraction expansion
of a function with simple real roots is the method of residues.
• The residue of a complex function F(z) at a simple pole zi is given by
𝐴𝑖= ( 𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑖 ) 𝐹 (𝑧)|𝑧 → 𝑧

𝑖
• This is the partial fraction coefficient of the ith term of the expansion
𝑛
𝐴𝑖
F ( z )=∑
𝑖=1 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑖 56
Z-transform solution of Difference Equations
• By a process analogous to Laplace transform solution of

differential equations, one can easily solve linear
difference equations.
1. The equations are first transformed to the z-domain (i.e., both

the right- and left-hand side of the equation are z-transformed) .
2. Then the variable of interest is solved.
3. Finally inverse z-transformed is computed.
57
•• Example-7:
Solve the linear difference equation
3 1
𝑥 𝑘 +2 − 𝑥 𝑘 +1 + 𝑥 ( 𝑘 )=1(𝑘 )
( ) ( )
2 2
• With initial conditions
Solution
• 1. Taking z-transform of given equation
2 2 3 1 𝑧
[ 𝑧 𝑋 ( 𝑧 ) − 𝑧 𝑥 ( 0 ) − 𝑧𝑥 ( 1 ) ] − 2 𝑧𝑋 ( 𝑧 )+ 2 𝑋 ( 𝑧 ) = 𝑧 −1
• 2. Solve for X(z)
3 1 𝑧 2 5 3
[𝑧 ¿¿ 2 − 𝑧 + ] 𝑋 ( 𝑧 )= + 𝑧 +( − ) 𝑧 ¿
2 2 𝑧−1 2 2 58
3 1 𝑧 2 5 3
[𝑧 ¿¿ 2 − 𝑧 + ] 𝑋 ( 𝑧 )= + 𝑧 +( − ) 𝑧 ¿
• Then 2 2 𝑧−1 2 2
𝑧 [ 1+( 𝑧 +1)( 𝑧 −1)] 𝑧3
𝑋 ( 𝑧 )= =
( 𝑧 −1)(𝑧 −1)( 𝑧 − 0.5) ( 𝑧 −1 )2 ( 𝑧 − 0.5)
• 3. Inverse z-transform
𝑋 ( 𝑧 ) 𝑧2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= = + +
𝑧 ( 𝑧 − 1 )2 ( 𝑧 −0.5) ( 𝑧 − 1 )2 𝑧 −1 𝑧 −0.5
2𝑧 𝑧
𝑋 ( 𝑧 )= +
( 𝑧 −1 ) 𝑧 −0.5
2
𝑥 (𝑘 )=2 𝑘 +(0.5)𝑘
59
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END OF LECTURES-18-19-20
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Digital Control Systems (DCS)

Dr. Imtiaz Hussain

• Relations between s-plane and z-plane

• Solution of difference Equations

Professor of Electrical Engineering

Aircraft Turbojet Engine

• A difference equation expresses the change in

• A differential equation expresses the change in

• Rearranging above equation in following form

𝑦 ( 𝑘+𝑛) +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 ( 𝑘 +𝑛−1)+…+𝑎1 𝑦 ( 𝑘 +1 )+ 𝑎0 𝑦 ( 𝑘 )=𝑏𝑛𝑢 ( 𝑘+𝑛) +𝑏𝑛−1𝑢 (𝑘 +𝑛−1 )+ …+𝑏1 𝑢( 𝑘+1)+ 𝑏0 𝑢 ( 𝑘 )

• Where coefficients , ,… and , ,… are constant.

• Alternatively, z-transforms provide a convenient approach for solving LTI

• The z-transform is an important tool in the analysis and design of

• It simplifies the solution of discrete-time problems by converting

• Thus, it plays a role similar to that served by Laplace transforms in

𝑈 ( 𝑧 )=𝑢 𝑜+𝑢 1 𝑧 −1 +𝑢2 𝑧 − 2+𝑢 𝑘 𝑧 − 𝑘

• The variable z −1 in the above equation can be

∗ ( 𝑡 )=𝑢 𝑜 𝛿 ( 𝑡 ) +𝑢1 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 𝑇 ) +𝑢2 𝛿 ( 𝑡 − 2𝑇 ) +…+𝑢𝑘 𝛿 ( 𝑡 −𝑘 𝑇 )

• The Laplace Transform of above equation is

𝑠 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑧− 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

• Z-transform of the signal

• Z-transform of the signal

Solution: Using Linearity Property

2. Partial Fraction: This method is almost identical

• Taking inverse z-transform (using z-transform table)

• By a process analogous to Laplace transform solution of

1. The equations are first transformed to the z-domain (i.e., both

2. Then the variable of interest is solved.

3. Finally inverse z-transformed is computed.

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