Fundamental Antenna Parameters

1. Radiation Pattern
An antenna radiation pattern is defined as “a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna
as a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the
radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region.
Radiation properties include radiation intensity, field
strength, phase or polarization.
Coordinate System
 Types of Radiation Patterns
Idealized
Point Radiator Vertical Dipole Radar Dish

Isotropic Omnidirectional Directional

Radiation Pattern Lobes

Main lobe

Full Null Beamwidth

Between
1st NULLS
Side lobes

Back lobes
Radiation Pattern Lobes
 Field Regions

Reactive near-field region

Far-field (Fraunhofer) 3
R1  0.62 D
region 

D
R1 Radiating near-field
(Fresnel) region
R2 D2
R2  2

 Radiation Intensity

Aside on Solid Angles

surface area  r 2

 arc length   r
  1.0 rad
  1.0 sr

total surface area  So  4 r 2   r 2

total circumfrance  2 radians
S
  2o sr
infinitesimal area r
of surface of sphere ds  r 2 sin( ) d d
ds
d  2  sin( ) d d
r
 Radiation Intensity

tot
dPrad W
U  Prad
tot
  U d
d sr
4

tot
dPrad W 2
Prad   Prad
tot
  Prad ds
ds m

U  r 2 Prad

since Prad ( ,  , r ) decays as 1/r2 in the far field

U ( ,  ) will be independent of r
 Radiation Intensity

1 ~ ~* 1 ~ 2 1 2 2
Prad ( ,  , r )  E  H  E  E  E
2 2 2
r2 2 2
U ( ,  )  E  E
2
U ( ,  )
U ( ,  ) 
U max
 Radiation Intensity
1. Isotropic radiator Examples
tot
Prad
Prad ( ,  , r ) 
4 r 2
tot
Prad
U ( ,  )  r Prad ( ,  , r ) 
2
 const
4
U ( ,  )
U ( ,  )   1.0
U max

2. Hertzian Dipole
 l I 0 e  jr
E ( ,  , r )  j sin( )
4 r
E ( ,  , r )  0
2 2
2 1 2 1  l I 0 e  jr    l I 0 
U ( ,  )  r  sin( )    sin 2 ( )
2 2
E  E  r
2 2 4 r 2  4 
U ( ,  )
U ( ,  )   sin 2 ( )
U max
 Directive Gain

U ( ,  ) U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
D( ,  )   tot  4 tot
U ave Prad Prad
4
U
Dmax  Do  4 max tot
 1 (directivity )
Prad
 Directivity
1. Isotropic radiator
Examples
tot
Prad
U ( ,  )  U o 
4
U ( ,  )
D( ,  )  4 tot
 1.0
Prad
Do  1.0

2. Hertzian Dipole
 l e  j  r
E ( ,  , r )  j sin( ), E ( ,  , r )  0
4 r
2
1 2 2    l I 0 
U ( ,  )  r 2 E  E    sin 2 ( )
2 2  4 
2 2  2
   lI 0     l I 0  8
P tot
  U ( ,  )d    0 0 sin2
( )  sin( ) d d    
2  4  3
rad
4
2  4 
U ( ,  ) 3 2
D( ,  )  4 tot
 sin ( )
Prad 2
3
Do 
2
 Antenna Gain

U ( ,  )
G ( ,  )  4
Pinput

DIRECTIVITY POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL POWER RADIATED

GAIN POWER DENSITY IN A CERTAIN DIRECTION

DIVIDED BY THE TOTAL INPUT POWER
TO THE ANTENNA TERMINALS (FEED POINTS)
IF ANTENNA HAS OHMIC LOSS…
THEN, GAIN < DIRECTIVITY
 Antenna Gain

Sources of Antenna System Loss

1. losses due to impedance mismatches
2. losses due to the transmission line
3. conductive and dielectric losses in the antenna
4. losses due to polarization mismatches
According to IEEE standards the antenna gain does not include losses due to
impedance or polarization mismatches. Therefore the antenna gain only
accounts for dielectric and conductive losses found in the antenna itself. However
Balanis and others have included impedance mismatch as part of the antenna gain.

The antenna gain relates to the directivity through a coefficient called the
radiation efficiency (et)
impedance mismatch conduction losses dielectric losses

G ( ,  )  et  D( ,  )  er ec ed  D( ,  ) et  1
 Overall Antenna Efficiency

The overall antenna efficiency is a coefficient that accounts for all the different
losses present in an antenna system.

 et
e  e p er ec ed  e p  er ecd
e p  polarization mismatches
er  reflection efficiency (impedance mismatch)
ec  conduction losses
ed  dielectric losses
ecd  conductor & dielectric losses
 Reflection Efficiency

The reflection efficiency through a reflection coefficient () at the input (or feed)
to the antenna.
2
er  1  
Rinput  Rgenerator

Rinput  Rgenerator
Rinput  antenna input impedance ()
Routput  generator output impedance ()
 Radiation Resistance

The radiation resistance is one of the few parameters that is relatively

straight forward to calculate.

total
2  U ( ,  )d
2P
Rrad  rad
2
 4
2
I o Io

Example: Hertzian Dipole

2 2  2
   l I o     l I o  8
tot
Prad   U ( ,  )d    0 0 sin 2
( )  sin( ) d d   
4
2  4  2  4  3
2
   l I o  8
2   2 2
2  4  3     l  8 2  l 
Rrad   4    

2
Io   3 3  
 Radiation Resistance

Example: Hertzian Dipole (continued)

2
   l I o  8
2   2 2
2  4  3     l  8 2  l 
Rrad   4    
3   
2
Io   3
l 1
let  and   377
 100
2 1
Rrad  377  0.079 
3 10000
2
 50  7.9 
er  1     0.0063
 50  7.9 
 Antenna Radiation Efficiency

Conduction and dielectric losses of an antenna are very difficult to separate and
are usually lumped together to form the ecd efficiency. Let Rcd represent the actual
losses due to conduction and dielectric heating. Then the efficiency is given as
Rrad
ecd 
Rcd  Rrad
For wire antennas (without insulation) there is no dielectric losses only conductor
losses from the metal antenna. For those cases we can approximate Rcd by:
l  o
Rcd 
2b 2
where b is the radius of the wire,  is the angular frequency,  is the conductivity
of the metal and l is the antenna length
 Example Problem:

A half-wavelength dipole antenna, with an input impedance of 73 is to be

connected to a generator and transmission line with an output impedance of
50. Assume the antenna is made of copper wire 2.0 mm in diameter and the
operating frequency is 10.0 GHz. Assume the radiation pattern of the antenna is

U ( ,  )  Bo sin 3 ( )
Find the overall gain of this antenna
SOLUTION
First determine the directivity of the antenna.
U ( ,  )
D( ,  )  4 tot
Prad
Bo sin 3 ( ) 16 3
D( ,  )  4  sin ( )
 3  3
2
B0  
 4 
16
D0  Dmax   1.697
3
 Example Problem: Continued

SOLUTION
Next step is to determine the efficiencies
et  er ecd
2
2 73  50
er  (1   )  (1  )  0.965
73  50
Rrad
ecd 
Rcd  Rrad
l  o 0.015 2 10 109  4 107
Rcd    0.0628
2b 2 2 (0.001) 2  5.7 10 7

73
ecd   0.9991
73  0.0628
et  er ecd  0.965  0.9991  0.964
 Example Problem: Continued

SOLUTION
Next step is to determine the gain

G ( ,  )  er ecd D( ,  )
16
G ( ,  )  0.964 sin 3 ( )
3
16
G0  Gmax  0.964  1.636
3
G0 (dB)  10 log10 (1.636)  2.14 dB
Antenna Type Gain (dBi) Gain over Power Levels
Isotropic
Half 1.76 1.5x
Wavelength
Dipole
Cell Phone 3.0 2.0x 0.6 Watts
Antenna
(PIFA)
Standard Gain 15 31x
Horn
Cell phone 6 4x
tower
antenna
Large 50 100,000x
Reflecting
Dish
Small 40 10,000x
Reflecting
Dish
 Effective Aperture

Aphysical plane wave

Pload
incident

?
Question: Pload  AphysicalWinc
Pload
Answer: Usually NOT Pload  Aeff Winc  Aeff 
Winc
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(no losses)

Antenna #1 Antenna #2

Direction of wave propagation

transmit receiver

Atm, Dt Arm, Dr
R

2
Aem  Do
4
Directivity and Maximum Effective Aperture
(include losses)

Antenna #1 Antenna #2

Direction of wave propagation

transmit receiver

Atm, Dt Arm, Dr
R

2
2 * 2
Aem  ecd (1   ) Do ˆ w  ˆ a
4
conductor and
dielectric losses
reflection losses polarization mismatch
(impedance mismatch)
 Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #1

tran Antenna #2
s mit

rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r

The transmitted power density supplied by Antenna #1

at a distance R and direction rr)is given by:
Pt Dgt ( t ,  t )
Wt 
4 R 2
The power collected (received) by Antenna #2 is given by:
Pt Dgt ( t ,  t ) Pt Dgt ( t ,  t ) Dgr ( r ,  r )2
Pr  Wt Ar  Ar 
4 R 2 4 R 2 4
2
Pr   
   Dgt ( t ,  t ) Dgr ( r ,  r )
Pt  4 R 
 Friis Transmission Equation (no loss)
Antenna #1

tran Antenna #2
s mit

rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r

2
Pr   
   Dgt ( t ,  t ) Dgr ( r ,  r )
Pt  4 R 

If both antennas are pointing in the direction of their maximum radiation pattern:

2
Pr   
   Dto Dro
Pt  4 R 
 Friis Transmission Equation ( loss)
Antenna #1

tran Antenna #2
s mit

rr)
Atm ,
Dt tt)
receive
r
R
Arm , D
r

conductor and reflection losses in receiving free space loss factor

dielectric losses (impedance mismatch)
receiving antenna

2
Pr 2 2    * 2
 ecdt ecdr (1  r )(1  t )  Dgt ( t , t ) Dgr ( r , r ) ˆ w  ˆ a
Pt  4 R 

conductor and reflection losses in transmitter

dielectric losses (impedance mismatch)
transmitting antenna polarization mismatch
 Friis Transmission Equation: Example #1
A typical analog cell phone antenna has a directivity of 3 dBi at its operating frequency of 800.0
MHz. The cell tower is 1 mile away and has an antenna with a directivity of 6 dBi. Assuming that
the power at the input terminals of the transmitting antenna is 0.6 W, and the antennas are
aligned for maximum radiation between them and the polarizations are matched, find the power
delivered to the receiver. Assume the two antennas are well matched with a negligible amount of
loss.
2
Pr 2 2    * 2
 ecdt ecdr (1  r )(1  t )  Dt Dr ˆ w  ˆ a
max max

Pt  4 R 
=1 =0 =0 =1
=1

c 3e8
   0.375m 2
f 800e6  0.375 
Pr  0.6 watts     2  4  1.65 nW
Dtmax  103 /10  2.0  4 1 609.344 
Drmax  106 /10  4.0
 Friis Transmission Equation: Example #2
A half wavelength dipole antenna (max gain = 2.14 dBi) is used to communicate from an old
satellite phone to a low orbiting Iridium communication satellite in the L band (~ 1.6 GHz).
Assume the communication satellite has antenna that has a maximum directivity of 24 dBi and is
orbiting at a distance of 781 km above the earth. Assuming that the power at the input terminals
of the transmitting antenna is 1.0 W, and the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation
between them and the polarizations are matched, find the power delivered to the receiver.
Assume the two antennas are well matched with a negligible amount of loss.

2
Pr 2 2    * 2
 ecdt ecdr (1  r )(1  t )  Dt Dr ˆ w  ˆ a
max max

Pt  4 R 
=1 =0 =0 =1
=1

c 3e8
   0.1875m  0.1875 
2

f 800e6 Pr  1.0 watts    1.64  251  0.15 pW

 4  781,000 
Dtmax  10 2.14 /10  1.64
Drmax  10 24 /10  251.0
 Friis Transmission Equation: Example #2
A roof-top dish antenna (max gain = 40.0 dBi) is used to communicate from an old satellite phone
to a low orbiting Iridium communication satellite in the Ku band (~ 12 GHz). Assume the
communication satellite has antenna that has a maximum directivity of 30 dBi and is orbiting at a
distance of 36,000 km above the earth. How much transmitter power is required to receive 100
pW of power at your home. Assume the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between
them and the polarizations are matched, find the power delivered to the receiver. Assume the two
antennas are well matched with a negligible amount of loss.

2
Pr 2 2    * 2
 ecdt ecdr (1  r )(1  t )  Dt Dr ˆ w  ˆ a
max max

Pt  4 R 
=1 =0 =0 =1
=1

c 3e8 100 1012 watts

   0.025m Pt  2
 82 W
f 800e6  0.025 
  10,000 1000
Drmax  10 40 /10  10,000  4  36,000,000 
Dtmax  1030 /10  1000.0
 Radar Range Equation

Definition: Radar cross section or echo area of a target is defined as the area when intercepting
the same amount of power which, when scattered isotropically, produces at the receiver the same
power density as the actual target.
 (radar cross section) m2
  Winc   2 Ws 
Ws  lim      lim 4 R  m2 R (distance from target) m
R  4 R 2 R  Winc  Ws (scattered power density) W/m2
  
Winc (incident power density) W/m2
 Radar Range Equation (no losses)

Power density incident on the target is a function

of the transmitting antenna and the distance between
the target and transmitter:
Pt Dgt ( t ,  t )
Winc 
4 Rt
2

The amount of power density scattered by the target

at the location of the receiver is then given by:
 Pt Dgt ( t ,  t )
Ws  Winc 
The amount of power delivered by the receiver is 4 Rr
2
(4 Rt Rr ) 2
then given by:
Pt Dgt ( t ,  t ) 2
Pr  Ws Ar   Dgr ( r ,  r )
(4 Rt Rr ) 2
4
Note that in general:
Pr  2
Dgt ( t ,  t ) Dgr ( r ,  r )    ( t ,  t , r ,  r )

Pt (4 Rt Rr ) 2 4
 Radar Range Equation (losses)

2
Pr 2 2 Dgt ( t , t ) Dgr ( r , r )    * 2
 ecdt ecdr (1  r )(1  t )   ˆ w  ˆ a
Pt 4  4 Rt Rr 
 Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Definition: Radar cross section or echo
area of a target is defined as the area
when intercepting
the same amount of power which, when
scattered isotropically, produces at the
receiver the same
power density as the actual target.

  Winc   2 Ws 
Ws  lim      lim  4 R  m2
R  4 R 2 R  Winc 
  

 
 E scat 2   E scat 2 

  lim 4 R 2  m 2  lim 4 R 2  m2

R   2
 R   2

  E inc
  E inc


Transmitter and receiver not in the

 t   r ,  t   r same location (bistatic RCS)
   ( t ,  t , r ,  r )
 t   r ,  t   r Transmitter and receiver in the
same location (usually the same
antenna) called mono-static RCS
 Radar Cross Section (RCS)

RCS Customary Notation:

Typical RCS values can span 10-5m2
(insect) to 106 m2 (ship). Due to the
large dynamic range a logarithmic
power scale is most often used.

  m2   
 dBsm   dBm2  10 log10    10 log10  m 2
 1 
 
 ref   
100 m2 20 dBsm

10 m2 10 dBsm

1 m2 0 dBsm

0.1 m2 -10 dBsm

0.01 m2 -20 dBsm