8.motivation and Emotion

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Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 9
Chapter 9 Learning Objective Menu
• LO 9.1 Motivation
• LO 9.2 Instinct approaches to motivation
• LO 9.3 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
• LO 9.4 Three types of needs
• LO 9.5 Arousal approaches to motivation
• LO 9.6 Incentive approaches to motivation
• LO 9.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
• LO 9.8 Self-determination theory of motivation
• LO 9.9 Bodily causes of hunger
• LO 9.10 Social factors influencing hunger
• LO 9.11 Some problems in eating behavior
• LO 9.12 Biological factors of obesity
• LO 9.13 Three elements of emotion
• LO 9.14 James-Lange theory of emotion
• LO 9.15 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
• LO 9.16 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
• LO 9.17 Schacter and Singer’s classic study of emotion
• LO 9.18 Facial feedback hypothesis
• LO 9.19 Cognitive-mediational theory
• LO 9.20 Positive psychology movement
LO 9.1 Motivation
Motivation
• Motivation - the process by which
activities are started, directed, and
continued so that physical or
psychological needs or wants are met.
• Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation
in which a person performs an action
because it leads to an outcome that is
separate from or external to the person.
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LO 9.1 Motivation
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LO 9.2 Instinct approaches to motivation
Instinct Approaches to Motivation
• Instincts - the biologically determined
and innate patterns of behavior that
exist in both people and animals.
• Instinct approach - approach to
motivation that assumes people are
governed by instincts similar to those of
animals.
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LO 9.3 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
• Need - a requirement of some material
(such as food or water) that is essential for
survival of the organism.
• Drive - a psychological tension and
physical arousal arising when there is a
need that motivates the organism to act in
order to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension.
• Drive-reduction theory - approach to
motivation that assumes behavior arises
from physiological needs that cause
internal drives to push the organism to
satisfy the need and reduce tension and
arousal.
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LO 9.3 Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
• Primary drives - those drives that

involve needs of the body such as
hunger and thirst.
• Acquired (secondary) drives - those
drives that are learned through
experience or conditioning, such as the
need for money or social approval.
• Homeostasis - the tendency of the body
to maintain a steady state. Menu
LO 9.4 Three types of needs
Three Types of Needs
• Need for achievement (nAch) - a
need that involves a strong desire
to succeed in attaining goals, not
only realistic ones but also
challenging ones.
• Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need
for friendly social interactions and
relationships with others.
• Need for power (nPow) - the need
to have control or influence over
others.
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LO 9.5 Arousal approaches to motivation
Arousal Approach to Motivation
• Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be
unlearned but causes an increase in
stimulation, such as curiosity.
• Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which
people are said to have an optimal (best or
ideal) level of tension that they seek to
maintain by increasing or decreasing
stimulation.
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Arousal Approach to Motivation
• Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating performance
is related to arousal; moderate levels of
arousal lead to better performance than do
levels of arousal that are too low or too high.
– This effect varies with the difficulty of the task:
easy tasks require a high-moderate level while
more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.
• Sensation seeker - someone who needs
more arousal than the average person.
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LO 9.6 Incentive approaches to motivation
Incentive Approaches to Motivation
• Incentives - things that attract or lure people
into action.
• Incentive approaches - theories of motivation
in which behavior is explained as a response
to the external stimulus and its rewarding
properties.
• Expectancy-value theories - incentive
theories that assume the actions of humans
cannot be predicted or fully understood
without understanding the beliefs, values, and
the importance that a person attaches to
those beliefs and values at any given moment
in time. Menu
LO 9.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Self-actualization - according to
Maslow, the point that is seldom
reached at which people have
sufficiently satisfied the lower needs
and achieved their full human potential.
• Peak experiences- according to
Maslow, times in a person’s life during
which selfactualization is temporarily
achieved.
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LO 9.7 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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LO 9.8 Self-determination theory of motivation
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation
• Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory

of human motivation in which the social
context of an action has an effect on the
type of motivation existing for the action.
• Intrinsic motivation - type of motivation
in which a person performs an action
because the act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner.
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LO 9.9 Bodily causes of hunger
Hunger: Bodily Causes
• Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas to
control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the
bloodstream.
• Glucagons- hormones that are secreted by the
pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of
glucose in the bloodstream.
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Hunger: Bodily Causes
• Weight set point – the particular level of
weight that the body tries to maintain.
• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at
which the body burns energy when the
organism is resting.
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LO 9.10 Social factors influencing hunger
Hunger: Social Causes
• Social cues for when meals are
to be eaten.
• Cultural customs.
• Food preferences.
• Use of food as a comfort device
or escape from unpleasantness.
• Some people may respond to
the anticipation of eating by
producing an insulin response,
increasing the risk of obesity. Menu
LO 9.11 Some problems in eating behavior
Eating Problems
• Obesity - a condition in which the body
weight of a person is 20 percent or more
over the ideal body weight for that
person’s height (actual percents vary
across definitions).
• Anorexia nervosa - a condition in which a
person reduces eating to the point that a
weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal
body weight or more occurs.
• Bulimia - a condition in which a person
develops a cycle of “binging” or
overeating enormous amounts of food at
one sitting, and “purging” or deliberately
vomiting after eating.
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LO 9.12 Biological factors of obesity
Biological Factors of Eating Problems
• Leptin - a hormone that, when released

into the bloodstream, signals the
hypothalamus that the body has had
enough food and reduces the appetite
while increasing the feeling of being full.
– Role of leptin in obesity.
– Genetics and obesity.
• Genetics may play a part in anorexia
and bulimia, as well as insensitivity to
leptin. Menu
LO 9.12 Biological factors of obesity
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LO 9.13 Three elements of emotion
Elements of Emotion
• Emotion - the “feeling”
aspect of consciousness,
characterized by a
certain physical arousal,
a certain behavior that
reveals the emotion to
the outside world, and an
inner awareness of
feelings.
• Display rules - learned
ways of controlling
displays of emotion in
social settings. Menu
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Common Sense Theory of Emotion
• Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a

stimulus leads to an emotion, which
then leads to bodily arousal.
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LO 9.14 James-Lange theory of emotion
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
• James-Lange theory of emotion - theory
in which a physiological reaction leads
to the labeling of an emotion.
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LO 9.14 James-Lange theory of emotion
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LO 9.15 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
• Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - theory
in which the physiological reaction and
the emotion are assumed to occur at
the same time.
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LO 9.15 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
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LO 9.16 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
• Cognitive arousal theory – theory of

emotion in which both the physical
arousal and the labeling of that arousal
based on cues from the environment
must occur before the emotion is
experienced.
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LO 9.16 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion
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SchacterLOand Singer’s
9.17 Schacter and Singer’sStudy ofemotion
classic study of
Emotion
• Participants who were exposed to the
“angry” man interpreted their physical
arousal as anger
• Participants who were exposed to the
“happy” man interpreted their physical
arousal as happiness.
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LO 9.18 Facial feedback hypothesis
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
• Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of
emotion that assumes that facial expressions
provide feedback to the brain concerning the
emotion being expressed, which in turn
causes and intensifies the emotion.
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LO 9.18 Facial feedback hypothesis
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LO 9.19 Cognitive-mediational theory
Cognitive Mediational Theory
• Cognitive-mediational theory - theory of
emotion in which a stimulus must be
interpreted (appraised) by a person in
order to result in a physical response
and an emotional reaction.
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LO 9.19 Cognitive-mediational theory.
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LO 9.20 Positive psychology movement
Positive Psychology Movement
• Positive psychology movement - a
viewpoint that recommends shifting the
focus of psychology away from the
negative aspects to a more positive
focus on strengths, well-being, and the
pursuit of happiness.
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Cognitive Psychology: Thinking,
Intelligence, and Language
Chapter 8
• LO 8.1 How people use mental images to think
• LO 8.2 Nature of a concept
• LO 8.3 Methods people use to solve problems and make decisions
• LO 8.4 Artificial intelligence
• LO 8.5 Barriers to solving problems
• LO 8.6 Creative thinking
• LO 8.7 Definition of intelligence
• LO 8.8 How intelligence tests measure intelligence
• LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed
• LO 8.10 Mental retardation and what causes it
• LO 8.11 Giftedness
• LO 8.12 Does intellectually gifted guarantee success
• LO 8.13 Theories of intelligence and how they differ
• LO 8.14 Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
• LO 8.15 Language
• LO 8.16 Elements and structure of language
• LO 8.17 Language’s influence on thinking
• LO 8.18 Animal capability of learning language
• LO 8.19 Ways to improve thinking
LO 8.1 How people use mental images to think
Thinking and Mental Images
• Thinking (cognition) - mental activity that
goes on in the brain when a person is
organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating information to
others.
• Mental images - mental representations that
stand for objects or events and have a
picture-like quality.
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LO 8.2 Nature of a concept
Concepts
• Concepts - ideas that represent a
class or category of objects,
events, or activities.
• Superordinate concept - the most
general form of a type of concept,
such as “animal” or “fruit.”
• Basic level type - an example of a
type of concept around which other
similar concepts are organized,
such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear.”
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Concepts
• Subordinate concept – the most
specific category of a concept, such as
one’s pet dog or a pear in one’s hand.
• Formal concepts - concepts that are
defined by specific rules or features.
• Natural concepts - concepts people
form as a result of their experiences in
the real world.
• Prototype - an example of a concept A platypus is a
that closely matches the defining “fuzzy” natural
characteristics of a concept. concept
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LO 8.3 Methods people use to solve problems and make decisions
Problem-Solving
• Problem solving - process of
cognition that occurs when a goal
must be reached by thinking and
behaving in certain ways.
• Trial and error (mechanical solution)
– problem-solving method in which
one possible solution after another is
tried until a successful one is found.
• Algorithms - very specific, step-by-
step procedures for solving certain
types of problems.
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Problem-Solving
• Heuristic - an educated guess based on
prior experiences that helps narrow
down the possible solutions for a
problem. Also known as a “rule of
thumb.”
– Means–end analysis - heuristic in which the
difference between the starting situation
and the goal is determined and then steps
are taken to reduce that difference.
• Insight - sudden perception of a solution
to a problem. Menu
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Tower of Hanoi
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LO 8.4 Artificial intelligence
Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence
(AI) - the creation of a
machine that can think
like a human.
– True flexibility of human

thought processes has
yet to be developed in a
machine.
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LO 8.5 Barriers to solving problems
Problem-Solving Barriers
• Functional fixedness - a block to problem
solving that comes from thinking about
objects in terms of only their typical functions.
• Mental set - the tendency for people to persist
in using problem-solving patterns that have
worked for them in the past.
• Confirmation bias – the tendency to search
for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit those
beliefs.
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LO 8.8 How intelligence tests measure intelligence
IQ Tests
• Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number
representing a measure of
intelligence, resulting from the division
of one’s mental age by one’s
chronological age and then
multiplying that quotient by 100.
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields
an IQ score.
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a
verbal score and a performance
score, as well as an overall score of
intelligence.
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LO 8.7 Definition of intelligence
Intelligence
• Intelligence - the ability to learn from
one’s experiences, acquire knowledge,
and use resources effectively in
adapting to new situations or solving
problems.
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LO 8.9 How intelligence tests are constructed
Development of IQ Tests
• Standardization - the process of giving the
test to a large group of people that represents
the kind of people for whom the test is
designed.
• Validity - the degree to which a test actually
measures what it’s supposed to measure.
• Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce
the same scores again and again each time it
is given to the same people.
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Unreliable and Invalid

Construct (i.e., “intelligence)
TEST
Scores on test
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Reliable But Invalid

TEST
Scores on test
Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!

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Reliable AND Valid

TEST
Scores on test
Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!

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Development of IQ Tests
• Deviation IQ scores - a type of
intelligence measure that assumes that
IQ is normally distributed around a
mean of 100 with a standard deviation
of about 15.
– Norms
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LO 8.10 Mental retardation and what causes it
Mental Retardation
• Developmentally delayed - condition in which
a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills
exist at an earlier developmental stage than
the skills of others who are the same
chronological age. A more acceptable term
for mental retardation.
– Mental retardation or developmental delay is a
condition in which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive
behavior is severely deficient for a person of a
particular chronological age.
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Mental Retardation
• Four levels of delay are:
– Mild: 55–70 IQ
– Moderate: 40–55 IQ
– Severe: 25–40 IQ
– Profound: Below 25 IQ.
• Causes of developmental delay include
deprived environments, as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and
dietary deficiencies. Menu
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LO 8.6 Creative thinking
Creativity
• Creativity- the process of solving problems
by combining ideas or behavior in new
ways.
– Convergent thinking - type of thinking in which a
problem is seen as having only one answer, and
all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that
single answer, using previous knowledge and
logic.
– Divergent thinking – type of thinking in which a
person starts from one point and comes up with
many different ideas or possibilities based on that
point (kind of creativity).
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LO 8.6 Creative thinking
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LO 8.11 Giftedness
Giftedness
• Gifted - the 2 percent of the population
falling on the upper end of the normal
curve and typically possessing an IQ of
130 or above.
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LO 8.12 Does intellectually gifted guarantee success
Does Giftedness Guarantee

Success?
• Terman conducted a longitudinal
study that demonstrated that
gifted children grow up to be
successful adults for the most
part.
– Terman’s study has been criticized
for a lack of objectivity because he
became too involved in the lives of
his participants, even to the point
of interfering on their behalf. Menu
LO 8.13 Theories of intelligence and how they differ
Theories of Intelligence
• Spearman’s Theory
– g factor – the ability to reason and solve
problems, or general intelligence.
– s factor – the ability to excel in certain
areas, or specific intelligence.
• Gardner’s Theory
– Multiple intelligences - ranging from verbal,
linguistic, and mathematical to
interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligence.
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According to Gardner, what kind of

intelligence is being shown here?
Movement
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Albert
Einstein
Logical-Mathematical
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Visual-spatial

Musical Menu
• Triarchic theory of intelligence - Sternberg’s
theory that there are three kinds of
intelligences: analytical, creative, and practical.
– Analytical intelligence - the ability to break
problems down into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving.
– Creative intelligence - the ability to deal with
new and different concepts and to come up
with new ways of solving problems.
– Practical intelligence – the ability to use
information to get along in life and become
successful.
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• Emotional intelligence – the awareness of
and ability to manage one’s own emotions as
well as the ability to be self-motivated, able to
feel what others feel, and socially skilled.
Viewed as a powerful influence on success in
life.
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Heredity
LO 8.14and
InfluenceEnvironment
of heredity and environmentand
on intelligence
Intelligence
• Stronger correlations are found between
IQ scores as genetic relatedness
increases.
• Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.
• The Bell Curve - book that made widely
criticized claims about the heritability of
intelligence.
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LO 8.14 Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
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LO 8.15 Language
Language
• Language - a system for combining
symbols (such as words) so that an
unlimited number of meaningful
statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others.
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LO 8.16 Elements and structure of intelligence
Elements and Structure of Language
• Grammar - the system of rules

governing the structure and use a of
language.
• Syntax - the system of rules for
combining words and phrases to form
grammatically correct sentences.
• Morphemes - the smallest units of
meaning within a language.
– Semantics - the rules for determining the
meaning of words and sentences. Menu
LO 8.16 Elements and structure of intelligence
Elements and Structure of Language
• Phonemes - the basic units of sound in

language.
• Pragmatics - aspects of language
involving the practical ways of
communicating with others, or the social
“niceties” of language.
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LO 8.17 Language’s influence on thinking
Language and Cognition
• Linguistic relativity hypothesis - the
theory that thought processes and
concepts are controlled by language.
• Cognitive universalism – theory that
concepts are universal and influence
the development of language.
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LO 8.18 Animal capability of learning language
Animal Language
• Studies have been
somewhat successful in
demonstrating that animals
can develop a basic kind of
language, including some
abstract ideas.
• Controversy exists over the
lack of evidence that
animals can learn syntax,
which some feel means that
animals are not truly
learning and using
language.
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LO 8.18 Animal capability of learning language
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LO 8.19 Ways to improve thinking
Ways to Improve Thinking
• Mental activity that requires creativity
and the use of memory abilities, such as
working crossword puzzles and reading
books, can help to keep the brain fit.
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• LO 6.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
• LO 6.2 Different models of how memory works
• LO 6.3 Sensory memory
• LO 6.4 Short-term or working memory
• LO 6.5 Long-term memory
• LO 6.6 Different types of long-term memory
• LO 6.7 How information is organized in long-term memory
• LO 6.8 Kinds of cues that help people remember
• LO 6.9 How recall and recognition differ
• LO 6.10 Reliability of eye witness testimony
• LO 6.11 Flashbulb memory
• LO 6.12 How long-term memories are formed
• LO 6.13 Problems experienced with remembering a long-term memory
• LO 6.14 False memory syndrome
• LO 6.15 Different causes of forgetting
• LO 6.16 How and where memories are formed in the brain
• LO 6.17 Amnesia
• LO 6.18 Helping people with Alzheimer’s disease
LO 6.1 Memory and the three processes of memory
Memory and Its Processes
• Memory - an active system that receives
information from the senses, organizes and
alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves
the information from storage.
• Processes of Memory:
– Encoding - the set of mental operations that people
perform on sensory information to convert that
information into a form that is usable in the brain’s
storage systems.
– Storage - holding onto information for some period of
time.
– Retrieval - getting information that is in storage into a
form that can be used.
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LO 6.2 Different models of how memory works
Models of Memory
• Information-processing model - model of memory that
assumes the processing of information for memory
storage is similar to the way a computer processes
memory in a series of three stages.
– Levels-of-processing model - model of memory that
assumes information that is more “deeply processed,” or
processed according to its meaning rather than just the
sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will
be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of
time.
– Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model - a model of
memory in which memory processes are proposed to take
place at the same time over a large network of neural
connections.
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LO 6.2 Different models of how memory works
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LO 6.3 Sensory memory
Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory - the very first stage of
memory, the point at which information enters
the nervous system through the sensory
systems.
– Iconic memory - visual sensory memory, lasting
only a fraction of a second.
• Capacity – everything that can be seen at one time.
• Duration - information that has just entered iconic
memory will be pushed out very quickly by new
information, a process called masking.
• Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to access a visual
memory for 30 seconds or more.
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Sensory Memory
– Echoic memory - the brief memory of something a
person has just heard.
• Capacity - limited to what can be heard at any one
moment and is smaller than the capacity of iconic
memory
• Duration – lasts longer that iconic — about 2 to 4
seconds
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LO 6.4 Short-term or working memory
Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory (STM) (working memory) - the
memory system in which information is held for brief
periods of time while being used.
– Selective attention – the ability to focus on only one stimulus
from among all sensory input.
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Short-Term Memory
• Digit-span test – memory test in which a
series of numbers is read to subjects in the
experiment who are then asked to recall the
numbers in order.
– Conclusions are that the capacity of STM is about
seven items or pieces of information, plus or
minus two items, or from five to nine bits of
information.
– “magical number” = 7
• Chunking – bits of information are combined
into meaningful units, or chunks, so that
more information can be held in STM.
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Short-Term Memory
• Maintenance rehearsal - practice of saying some
information to be remembered over and over in one’s
head in order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs
tend to be encoded in auditory form).
• Duration of STM - lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds
without rehearsal.
• STM is susceptible to interference

(e.g., if counting is interrupted,
have to start over).
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LO 6.5 Long-term memory
Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory (LTM) -
the system of memory into
which all the information is
placed to be kept more or less
permanently.
• Elaborative rehearsal - a
method of transferring
information from STM into
LTM by making that
information meaningful in
some way.
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LO 6.6 Different types of long-term memory
Types of LTM
• Procedural (nondeclarative) memory - type of
long-term memory including memory for
skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned
responses. These memories are not
conscious but are implied to exist because
they affect conscious behavior.
• Declarative memory – type of long-term
memory containing information that is
conscious and known (memory for facts).
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Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
• Skills that people know how to do.
• Also include emotional associations,
habits, and simple conditioned reflexes
that may or may not be in conscious
awareness.
• Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory
from the point of injury or trauma forward,
or the inability to form new long-term
memories. Usually does NOT affect
procedural LTM.
• Procedural memory often called implicit
memory - memory that is not easily
brought into conscious awareness. Menu
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Declarative LTM
• All the things that people know.
• Semantic memory - type of declarative
memory containing general knowledge, such
as knowledge of language and information
learned in formal education.
• Episodic memory - type of declarative
memory containing personal information not
readily available to others, such as daily
activities and events.
• Semantic and episodic memories are forms of
explicit memory - memory that is consciously
known.
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LO 6.7 How information is organized in long-term memory
Organization of Memory
• LTM organized in terms of related meanings
and concepts.
• Semantic network model - model of memory
organization that assumes information is
stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with
concepts that are related stored physically
closer to each other than retrieval cue a
stimulus for remembering.
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LO 6.8 Kinds of cues that help people remember
Cues to Help Remember
• Retrieval cue – a stimulus for remembering.
• Encoding specificity - the tendency for memory of
information to be improved if related information
(such as surroundings or physiological state)
available when the memory is first formed is also
available when the memory is being retrieved.
– State-dependent learning - memories formed during a
particular physiological or psychological state will be easier
to recall while in a similar state.
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LO 6.8 Kinds of cues that help people remember
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LO 6.9 How recall and recognition differ
Recall
• Recall - type of memory
retrieval in which the
information to be retrieved
must be “pulled” from
memory with very few
external cues.
– Retrieval failure – recall has
failed (at least temporarily).
• Tip of the tongue phenomenon.
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Recall
• Serial position effect - tendency of
information at the beginning and
end of a body of information to be
remembered more accurately than
information in the middle of the
body of information.
– Primacy effect - tendency to remember
information at the beginning of a body
of information better than the
information that follows.
– Recency effect - tendency to
remember information at the end of a
body of information better than the
information ahead of it. Menu
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Recognition
• Recognition - the ability to match a piece of
information or a stimulus to a stored image or
fact.
• False positive – error of recognition in which
people think that they recognize some
stimulus that is not actually in memory.
Father Bernard Pagano enters a
courthouse during his time as a suspect
in a series of robberies. He was falsely
identified for the crimes committed by
another man, who eventually confessed
to the robberies. False positives occur
when people mistakenly believe they
have recognized someone or something
that they have actually never seen. Menu
LO 6.10 Reliability of eye witness testimony
Eyewitness Testimony
• Elizabeth Loftus study.

– Showed that what people see and hear
about an event after the fact can easily
affect the accuracy of their memories of
that event.
– Eye witness testimony not always reliable.
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Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb
LO 6.11 Flashbulb memory
Memories
• Automatic encoding - tendency
of certain kinds of information
to enter long-term memory with
little or no effortful encoding.
• Flashbulb memories - type of
automatic encoding that occurs
because an unexpected event
has strong emotional
associations for the person
remembering it.
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LO 6.12 How long-term memories are formed
How LTMs Are Formed
• “. . . remembering is more like making up a story than
it is like reading one printed in a book.”
• Constructive processing - referring to the retrieval of
memories in which those memories are altered,
revised, or influenced by newer information.
• Hindsight bias - the tendency to falsely believe,
through revision of older memories to include newer
information, that one could have correctly predicted
the outcome of an event.
Monday morning
quarterbacking –
hindsight bias
Menu
LO 6.13 Problems experienced with remembering a long-term memory
Memory Retrieval Problems
• Misinformation effect - the tendency of
misleading information presented after
an event to alter the memories of the
event itself.
Menu
LO 6.14 False memory syndrome
Reliability of Memory Retrieval
• False memory syndrome - the creation
of inaccurate or false memories through
the suggestion of others, often while the
person is under hypnosis.
• Evidence suggests that false memories
cannot be created for just any kind of
memory.
– The memories must at least be plausible.
Menu
LO 6.15 Different causes of forgetting
Forgetting
• Curve of forgetting - a graph showing a
distinct pattern in which forgetting is
very fast within the first hour after
learning a list and then tapers off
gradually.
Menu
Menu
Forgetting: Encoding Failure
• Encoding failure - failure to process
information into memory.
Menu
Encoding Failure:
Which is the correct penny?
It’s me!
Menu
Forgetting: Memory Trace Theory
• Memory trace - physical change in
the brain that occurs when a
memory is formed.
– Decay - loss of memory due to the
passage of time, during which the
memory trace is not used.
– Disuse - another name for decay,
assuming that memories that are not Memories after
used will eventually decay and many years – not
explained by
disappear. memory trace
theory.
Menu
Forgetting: Interference Theory
• Proactive interference - memory retrieval problem
that occurs when older information prevents or
interferes with the retrieval of newer information.
• Retroactive interference - memory retrieval problem
that occurs when newer information prevents or
interferes with the retrieval of older information.
Proactive
interference –
problem
driving in
England after
learning in
US. Menu
Menu
Menu
LO 6.16 How and where memories are formed in the brain
Formation of LTMs
• Engram - the physical change that
takes place in the brain when a memory
is formed.
• Consolidation - the changes that take
place in the structure and functioning of
neurons when an engram is formed.
• Hippocampus – area of brain
responsible for the formation of LTMs.
Menu
LO 6.16 How and where memories are formed in the brain
Menu
LO 6.17 Amnesia
Amnesia
• Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory from
the point of some injury or trauma backwards,
or loss of memory for the past.
• Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from
the point of injury or trauma forward, or the
inability to form new long-term memories
(“senile dementia”).
• Infantile amnesia - the inability to retrieve
memories from much before age 3.
– Autobiographical memory - the memory for events
and facts related to one’s personal life story
(usually after age 3).
Menu
LO 6.17 Amnesia
Menu
LO 6.18 Helping people with Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s Disease
• The primary memory difficulty in Alzheimer’s is
anterograde amnesia, although retrograde amnesia
can also occur as the disease progresses.
• There are various drugs in use or in development for
use in slowing or stopping the progression of
Alzheimer’s disease.
Menu
LO 6.18 Helping people with Alzheimer’s disease
Menu

8.motivation and Emotion

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• Primary drives - those drives that

• Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory

• Leptin - a hormone that, when released

• Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a

• Cognitive arousal theory – theory of

– True flexibility of human

Unreliable and Invalid

Reliable But Invalid

Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID!

Reliable AND Valid

Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID!

Does Giftedness Guarantee

According to Gardner, what kind of

According to Gardner, what kind of

According to Gardner, what kind of

According to Gardner, what kind of

• Grammar - the system of rules

• Phonemes - the basic units of sound in

• STM is susceptible to interference

• Elizabeth Loftus study.

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