Materials of Construction

Chapter 7: Mixing, Handling,

Placing, & Compacting

 Introduction
 Mixers
 Charging the Mixer
 Uniformity of Mixing
 Mixing Time
 Prolonged Mixing
Chapter 7: Mixing, Handling,
Placing, & Compacting

 Ready-Mix Concrete
 Handling
 Placing and Compacting
 Vibration of Concrete
Introduction

 The correct quantities of cement, aggregate, water,

and possibly also admixtures, are batched (put into
groups or lots) and mixed in a concrete mixer.

 This produces fresh concrete, which is transported

from the mixer to its final location.

 The fresh concrete is then placed in the forms, and

compacted so as to achieve a dense mass which is
allowed, and helped, to harden.
Mixers

 The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation

or stirring, the objective being:
 To coat the surface of all aggregate particles with

cement paste
 To blend all the ingredients of concrete into a

uniform mass, this uniformity must not be

disturbed by the process of discharging from the
mixer

 Types of mixers:
 Batch Mixers

 Continuous Mixers
Mixers

1) Batch Mixers:
 (the usual type of mixers), which means that one batch of
concrete is mixed and discharged before anymore
materials are put into the mixer.
 There are four types of batch mixers:
A) Tilting Drum Mixer
B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer
C) Pan-Type Mixer
D) A Dual Drum Mixer
Mixers

A) Tilting Drum Mixer: is one whose drum in which

mixing takes place is tilted for discharging.
 The drum is conical or bowl-shaped with internal

vanes
 The discharge is rapid without segregation

 These mixers are suitable for mixes of low

workability and for those containing large-size

aggregate
Mixers

A) Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers

B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer: is one in which the axis of

the mixer is always horizontal
 The discharge takes place by inserting a chute

(shaft, tube) into the drum or by reversing the

direction or rotation of the drum
 Because of a slow rate of discharge, some

segregation may occur

Mixers

B) Non-Tilting Drum Mixer:

Mixers

C) Pan-Type Mixer : is a forced-action mixer (similar in

action to an electric cake-mixer), as distinct from
drum mixers which rely on the free fall of concrete
inside the drum
 Pan mixers are particularly efficient with stiff and

cohesive mixes
 Therefore, often used for precast concrete, as

well as for mixing small quantities of concrete or

mortar in the laboratory
Mixers

C) Pan-Type Mixer:
Mixers

D) A Dual Drum Mixer: is sometimes used in highway

construction
 Here, there are two drums in series, concrete

being mixed part of the time in one and then

transferred to the other for the remainder of the
mixing time before discharging
Mixers

 It may be relevant to mention that in drum-type

mixers no scrapping of the sides takes place during
mixing so that a certain amount of mortar adheres to
the sides of the drum and remains until the mixer is
cleaned (means less mortar in the mix).
 To solve this problem:
 This initial batch is discarded

 As an alternative, a certain amount of mortar

(concrete with less coarse aggregate) may be

introduced into the drum prior to mixing the
concrete, a procedure known as buttering.
Mixers

 The size of a mixer is described by the volume of

concrete after compaction.

 Mixers are made in a variety of sizes from 0.04m3

(1.5 ft3) for laboratory use up to 13 m3 (17 yd3).

 Overloading the mixer by up to 10 percent is

generally harmless, but, if greater, a uniform mix will
not be obtained; this is very bad practice
Mixers

2) Continuous Mixers:
 (fed automatically by a continuous weigh-
batching system).
 The mixer itself may be of drum-type or may be
in the form of a screw moving in a stationary
housing
Charging the Mixer

 There are no general rules on the order of feeding

the ingredients into the mixer as this depends on the
properties of the mixer and of the mix.

 Usually:
 A small amount of water is fed first

 Solid materials, preferably fed uniformly and

simultaneously, while adding the rest of water

 Wait until full mixing is achieved
Charging the Mixer

 For dry mixes in drum mixers, it is necessary to feed

the coarse aggregate just after the small initial water
feed in order to ensure that the aggregate surface is
sufficiently wetted.

 Moreover, if coarse aggregate is absent to begin

with, the finer ingredients can become lodged (stuck
or blocked) in the head of the mixer
Uniformity of Mixing

 The mixture should be uniform. The efficiency of the

mixer can be measured by the variability of samples
from the mix.
 ASTM C 94-83 prescribes samples to be taken from
about points 1/6 and 5/6 of the discharge of a batch,
and the differences in the properties of the two
samples should not exceed any of the following:
 Density of concrete: 16 kg/m3 (1 lb/ft3)

 Air content: 1 percent

 Slump: 25 mm (1 in.) when average is less than

100 mm (4 in.) and 40 mm (1.5 in.) when average

is 100 to 150 mm (4 to 6 in.)
Uniformity of Mixing

 The mixture should be uniform. The efficiency of the

mixer can be measured by the variability of samples
from the mix.
 ASTM C 94-83 prescribes samples to be taken from
about points 1/6 and 5/6 of the discharge of a batch,
and the differences in the properties of the two
samples should not exceed any of the following:
 Percentage of aggregate retained on 4.75 mm

(3/16 in.) sieve: 6 percent

 Density of air-free mortar: 1.6 percent

 Compressive strength (average 7- day value of 3

cylinders): 7.5 percent

Uniformity of Mixing

 The sampling accuracy is assured by a limit on the

average range of pairs, and if two samples in pair
differ unduly (unjustifiably or improperly) then their
results are discarded.
 The mixer performance is judged by the difference
between the highest and lowest average of pairs for
each batch using three separate test batches; thus
one bad mixing operation does not condemn
(criticize or attack) a mixer
Mixing Time

 On site, there is often a tendency to mix concrete as

rapidly as possible. The optimum mixing time
depends on the:
 Type and size of mixer

 The speed of rotation

 The quality of blending of ingredients during

charging of the mixer

 A minimum time of 1 minute should be assured

so as to obtain a uniform mix (Table 7.1)

Mixing Time
Prolonged Mixing

 If mixing takes place over a long period, evaporation

of water from the mix can occur, with a consequent
decrease in workability and an increase in strength.
 A secondary effect is that of grinding of the
aggregate, particularly if soft: the grading thus
becomes finer and the workability lower
 Intermittent (irregular or discontinuous) remixing up
to 3 and 6 hours is harmless as far as strength and
durability are concerned, but workability decreases
unless the loss of moisture from the mixer is
prevented.
Prolonged Mixing

 Adding water to restore workability, known as re-

tempering, will possibly lower the strength and
increases shrinkage, but the effect depends on how
much the added water contributes to the effective
water/cement ratio of the concrete
 Ready-Mix Concrete

 If instead of being batched and mixed on site;

concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant,
it is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete
 It is used extensively (widely) as it offers numerous
advantages in comparison with conventional
methods of manufacture:
1) Close quality control of batching which reduces

the variability of the desired properties of

hardened concrete
2) Use on congested (crowded) sites or in highway

construction where there is little space for a

mixing plant and aggregate stockpiles
Ready-Mix Concrete

3) Use of agitator (stirring or disturbing) trucks to

ensure care in transportation, thus preventing
segregation and maintaining workability

4) Convenience when small quantities of concrete or

intermittent placing is required
Ready-Mix Concrete

 Its cost may be somewhat higher than that of site-

mixed concrete
 There are two principal categories of ready-mixed
concrete:
1) Central-mixed

2) Transit-mixed or truck-mixed

 It should be explained that agitating differs from

mixing solely (exclusively or only) by the speed of
rotation of the mixer: the agitating speed between 2
and 6 rpm (revolutions per minutes), compared with
the mixing speed of 4 to 16 rpm (minimum of 7 rpm
as specified by BS 1926:1962)
Ready-Mix Concrete
Handling

 There are many methods of transporting concrete

from the mixer to the site and, in fact, one such
method was discussed in the previous section.
 Method choice depends on:
1) Economical considerations, and
2) The quantity of concrete to be transported
 The methods range from wheelbarrow, buckets,
skips, and belt conveyors to special trucks, and to
pumping
 But in all cases, the important requirement is that
the mix should remain cohesive and should not
segregate
 Bad handling methods must be avoided (Fig 7.1-
7.3)
Handling
Handling
Handling
Placing & Compacting

 The operations of placing and of compacting are

interdependent and are carried out almost
simultaneously
 They are most important for the purpose of
ensuring the requirements of strength,
impermeability, and durability of the hardened
concrete in the actual structure
 When placing is concerned, the main objective is
to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its
final position so that segregation is avoided and
the concrete can be fully compacted (see Figs 7.6
to 7.9 pages 134 to 136)
Placing & Compacting
Placing & Compacting
Placing & Compacting
Placing & Compacting
Placing & Compacting

 To achieve this objective, the following rules

should be borne in mind:
a) hand shoveling and moving concrete by
immersion or poker vibrators should be avoided
b) the concrete should be placed in uniform layers,
not in large heaps or sloping layers
c) the thickness of a layer should be compatible
with the method of vibration so that entrapped
air can be removed from the bottom of each layer
d) the rates of placing and compaction should be
equal
Placing & Compacting

 To achieve this objective, the following rules

should be borne in mind:
e) where a good finish and uniform color are
required on columns and walls, the forms should
be filled at a rate of at least 2m (6ft) per hour,
avoiding delays (long delays can result in the
formation of cold joints)
f) each layer should be fully compacted before
placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst (at the same time as) the
underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic
(massive or huge) construction is achieved
Placing & Compacting

 To achieve this objective, the following rules

should be borne in mind:
g) collision between concrete and formwork or
reinforcement should be avoided. For deep
sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of
location of the concrete and minimum
segregation
h) concrete should be placed in a vertical plane
(vertically against the previously placed
concrete)
Placing & Compacting

 Some of the techniques for placing concrete: slip-

forming, trémie (an apparatus for depositing and
consolidating concrete under water, essentially a
tube of wood. It is usually handled by a crane)
method, shotcreting, preplaced aggregate
concrete, and roller compacted concrete.
Vibration of Concrete

 The process of compacting concrete by vibration

consists essentially of the elimination of entrapped
air and forcing the particles into a closer
configuration
 Extremely dry and stiff mixes can be vibrated
satisfactorily so that, compared with compaction
by hand, a given desired strength can be achieved
with a lower cement content (saving in cost)
 Both compaction by hand and compaction by
vibration can produce good quality concrete, with
the right mix and workmanship
Vibration of Concrete

 For efficient compaction, the consistency of the

concrete and the characteristics of the available
vibrator have to be matched
 There are three basic methods of compacting
concrete by vibration:
a) internal vibrators (poker vibrator or immersion
vibrator)
b) external vibrator (both formwork and concrete
are vibrated)
c) vibrating tables (for precast concrete units,
ensure uniform vibration)
Vibration of Concrete

 Revibration (at 1 to 2 hours after placing increases

compressive strength by up to 15%, but the actual
values depend on the workability of the mix)
 Shotcrete (mortar or concrete conveyed through a
hose and pneumatically projected at high velocity
onto a backup surface) is used for thin lightly
reinforced sections, such as shells or folded plate
roofs, tunnel linings, and prestressed concrete
tanks