Chapter 1

What Do We Mean by
Leadership?

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 Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• Leadership
• Leadership myths
• The interactional framework for analyzing leadership
• Illustrating the interactional framework: women in leadership
roles
• There is no simple recipe for effective leadership

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 What Is Leadership?
Lives of great men all remind us we can make our lives
sublime and, departing, leave behind us footprints on
the sands of time
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

• Teach someone how to fish VS give them fish …..

• Story of butterfly ….

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 Leadership
Complex phenomenon involving a leader, his or her followers,
and the situation

Because of the complexity of leadership, leadership researchers

have defined the concept in many different ways:

• Process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a

desired manner
• Directing and coordinating the work of group members
• Interpersonal relations in which others comply because they want
to, not because they have to

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 Leadership
Process of influencing an organized group toward
accomplishing its goals
This group works together to accomplish something and may
sometimes be referred to as “followers”
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a
group of individuals to achieve a common goal
Series of interactions between leaders and followers to
accomplish the process / goal together.
Actions that focus resources to create desirable opportunities
Creating conditions for a team to be effective
The ability to engage employees, the ability to build teams, and
the ability to achieve results
• The first two represent the how and the latter the what of
leadership
A complex form of social problem solving
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 What Is Leadership? – Trait Definition
Trait VS Process leadership
Traditionally, leadership may be viewed as a series of traits.
Some individuals have special innate characteristics / qualities
that set them apart from others (non-leaders) and make them
good leaders. Leadership resides in some individuals.
 Process Definition of Leadership
• Leadership is a phenomena
that occurs in interactions
between leaders and
followers.
• Leadership is Observed in
leadership behaviors
• Leadership Can be learned
– doesn’t always have to be
innate
• Leaders influence followers
and followers influence
good leaders so they adapt
their behavior to the
situation.

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 Leaders – Assigned Vs Emergent
• Assigned • Emergent
Leadership perceived by others regardless
• Leadership based
of the individual’s title
on a position
• Emerges over time through interactions with
within an others; emerge/come up from among other
organization. people, without necessarily being assigned;
Assigned a position natural influence because of following behaviors
by someone who • Verbal engagement – connect with others
has authority. • sharing and providing information
• Team leaders • Seeking others’ opinions – increases
knowledge / makes them more valuable
• Plant managers
• Being firm but not rigid – willing to work with
• Department others / get new information
heads • Professional competence / know the job
• Directors • Interpersonal warmth / caring / friendly
• CEO • Affected by personality and gender

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 Leadership and Power
• Basis of Social Power by French & Raven
• Power
(1959)
• The capacity to
• Referent or relationship power (when
influence to accomplish
you are friendly, caring – difference
a common goal – some
between manager and leader); people
have larger capacity
want to be like them, want to be close to
than others
them eg. movie stars, teacher, leader
• Ability to change Expert – competent, you know what you
others’ beliefs, are doing – eg. tour guide
attitudes, actions to • Legitimate – assigned leadership – so we
accomplish a common
listen and obey eg. A judge in courtroom
goal
• Reward power – do good to others –
pay/promote/good job assignments
• Coercive – power to punish eg. coach
who sits players on the bench
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 What Is Leadership?
• Leadership and Power - The capacity to influence. The ability
to change others’ beliefs, attitudes, & actions
 Leadership and Power
• Position Power (assigned): derived from rank in an organization –
legitimate, reward, coercive powers
• Personal Power (emergent) is influence derived from being seen
as likable & competent – referent, expert/competent powers; we
need to work on and develop throughout
Positional power = manager; Personal power = leader

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 Leaders Vs Managers
Leaders Managers
Leading (emergent/personal ) Managing
Leadership is social (assigned/positional )
influence. It means leaving • Linking job performance to
a mark. It is initiating and rewards
guiding, and the result is • Everything is a transaction
change. The product is a
• Ensure employees have
new character or direction
necessary resources to
that otherwise would never
complete the task
be. By their ideas and
deeds, leaders show the
way and influence the
behavior of others

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 Sources of Leader Power
– Furniture arrangement
– Shape of the table used for meetings and seating
arrangements
– Prominently displayed symbols
– Appearances of title and authority
– Choice of clothing
– Presence or absence of crisis
 Leadership Is Both a Science and an Art
Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research,
and Managerial Applications cites approximately 8,000 studies
on leadership
• Reflects the scope of the science of leadership

Leadership remains partly an art as well as a science

• Some managers may be effective leaders without ever having taken
a course or training program in leadership
• Some scholars in the field of leadership may be relatively poor
leaders themselves

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 Figure 1.1: Leadership and Management Overlap

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 Leadership Myths
Good leadership is all common sense
• The term common sense is ambiguous
• If leadership were simply common sense, then there would be
fewer workplace problems

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 Leadership Myths
Leaders are born, not made
• Innate factors and formative experiences influence behavior and
leadership
• Natural talents or characteristics may offer certain advantages or
disadvantages to a leader
• Research shows cognitive abilities and personality traits are partially
innate
• Different environments can nurture or suppress different leadership
qualities

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 Leadership Myths
The only school where leadership is learnt from is the school of
hard knocks
• Formal study and experiential learning complement each other
• Formal study of leadership provides students with a variety of ways
of examining a particular leadership situation
• Studying the different ways researchers have defined and examined
leadership helps students use these definitions and theories to better
understand what is going on in any leadership situation

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 Figure 1.2: The Interactional Framework for Analyzing
Leadership

Source: Adapted from E. P. Hollander, Leadership Dynamics: A Practical Guide to Effective Relationships (New York: Free Press,
1978).

Figure 1.2: The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership, Appendix

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 Summary
• Leadership is the process of influencing an organized group
toward achieving its goals
• Considerable overlap exists between leadership and
management
• Study of leadership must also include two other areas: the
followers and the situation
• Good leadership makes a difference, and it can be enhanced
through greater awareness of the important factors
influencing the leadership process

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 Activity
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L6wgfUypUuM
• Reflection questions:
• Is there a leadership style in the two examples that you have
seen?
• Which among the two leaders that you have seen has been
able to successfully balance the followers’ interest with task
accomplishment?
• In the two examples that you have seen; whom would you
say is a manager, and who is a leader? What are the qualities
that distinguishing qualities/ actions?
Topic 2 – Traits Theory
Leadership Traits

Watch your thoughts, for they become words.

Watch your words, for they become actions. Watch
your actions, for they become habits. Watch your
habits, for they become character. Watch your
character, for it becomes your destiny.
 Anonymous
What is a Trait?

 Traits
 Characteristics of an individual that reflect cognitive
(thinking), emotional (positive/negative), or behavioral
tendencies ;
 belongs to an individual; reflect cognitive (thoughts),
emotional (positive or negative), behavioral tendencies;
 Trait Approach to Leadership
 Some traits are generally associated with people perceived to
be leaders.
There is no trait that is absolutely necessary to be a leader
leaders tend to have some traits; but no single trait in all
leaders
However, no single trait is found among all leaders.
Major Leadership Traits
 Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks to be perceived
by others as a leader:
 Intelligence – cognitive ability (thinking) – a smart person
– effective leadership; Verbal, perceptual, and reasoning
capabilities. Eg. Elon Musk
 Also an important factor in effective leadership
 Self-Confidence – knowing what one can do or can’t do;
Certainty about one’s competencies and skills. Eg. Steve
Jobs leading apple – he understood his strengths very well
and made the most of them.
Leadership Traits
 Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks to be perceived
by others as a leader:
 Determination – Desire to get the job done (i.e.,
initiative, persistence, drive). Eg. Bill Gates - founded
and led Microsoft and now he’s leading Bill and Melinda
Gates Foundation to fight diseases.
 Integrity – The quality of honesty and trustworthiness. Eg.
Billy Graham, a preacher – owned up to his flaws when he
went wrong.
 Sociability – Leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant
social relationships; good relationships with people;
people enjoy being with them.
Competency (Trait) Perspective – Forms of
intelligence
Competency - Personality
&skill set
Personality is a good predictor of work place behavior; Leadership is behavior; leaders do
things; Leaders help people do more than they ever thought possible; very different
from what a manager does – plans, directs, organizes, controls subordinates and
process…Leaders go beyond this.

 Extroversion – good leaders more extroverted, outgoing (not afraid of interacting with others)
 Conscientiousness – in abundance - perseverance, drive, hardworking, diligent
 Self-concept – good leaders have a good opinion of themselves, they have high levels of self concept (Core Self Evaluation –
CSE – self-concept, locus of control, self-esteem, self evaluation, emotional stability ) have high CSE, have confidence
 Drive – achievement motivation (McClelland’s need for achievement) – good leaders have high drive.
 Integrity - Truthfulness & Consistency – doing the right thing and doing what you said you would do.
 Leadership motivation ( socialized power – to do for others) - McClelland’s need for power – need to have an impact, to
influence and control others – helping people do more.
 Knowledge of (the) business – having knowledge in general about business or specific knowledge of the business is better than
having no knowledge.
 Cognitive Intelligence (raw intelligence) – being smarter could help but not always - high IQ.
 Practical Intelligence (problem solving in real life ambiguous setting) – some call it being street smart.
 Emotional Intelligence – manage our own emotions and understand others and their cultures and help them manage their
emotions. High levels of EQ will certainly help.
5 Factor (FFM) or OCEAN Personality Model
&Leadership
5 Factor or OCEAN Personality Model &Leadership
Factor Behaviors or Items

Openness to experience I like traveling to foreign countries

I enjoy going to school

Conscientiousness I enjoy putting together detailed plans

I rarely get into trouble

Extraversion I like having responsibility for others

I have a large group of friends

Agreeableness I am a sympathetic person

I get along well with others

Neuroticism I remain calm in pressure situations

I take personal criticism well
5 Factor or OCEAN Personality Model &Leadership
Research indicates that there is a strong relationship between the
Big 5 personality traits and leadership – theoretical framework
that’s become dominant in research – 5 personality traits that all
other personality traits are related to (perceived and / or
effective)
 Low or High Neuroticism – neuroticism is the tendency to be
depressed, anxious, insecure, vulnerable or hostile – leading
to negative emotions (opposite is extroversion); low
neuroticism which prevents one from getting hijacked by ones
emotions is the 4th most important factor.
 Low or High Extraversion – sociable, assertive, positive energy;
factor most strongly associated with leadership; positive
emotions; High extraversion – perceived a strongly related to
leadership / influencing others; Most strongly related to
leadership
Neuroticism and Extraversion are independent of each other – can
be high on both or low on both or high on one and low on the other.
5 Factor or OCEAN Personality Model &Leadership
 Low or High Openness to experience – next most related –
tendency to be informed, curious, creative, insightful, re-
interpreting, high openness to new experience 3rd most
related
 Low or High Agreeableness – accepting, conforming, caring,
nurturing, trusting in ones interpersonal relationships; only
weakly related to leadership, but useful in interviews. Being
highly agreeable is weakly related to leadership, is super-
effective, 5th most important factor.
 Low or High Conscientiousness – organized, dependable,
controlled, decisive, get assignments in on time, follow all
the rules, do the APA formatting … 2nd most important
factor. High conscientiousness – effective leaders, get things
done, follow rules, make sure things happen, they do what
they say they are doing to do.

Emotional Intelligence & Leadership

 The Ability to:

 Perceive and manage emotions in oneself and in others
 People who are more able to manage their own and others’
emotions will be more effective leaders
 Ability to perceive and manage emotions in oneself and
others so they help people work to accomplish their goals
 People who manage their own and other people’s emotions
will be more effective leaders.
 Focus – Trait approach
Leader
 Focusesexclusively on
the leader – is a limitation
 What traits do leaders
exhibit?
 Who has these traits?
Organizations use
personality assessments to
recruit – assumption –
people have certain traits
which will increase
organizational effectiveness
Personality assessments
Organizations use personality assessments to
find the “right” people
 Assumptions:
 People with certain traits will increase
organizational effectiveness – especially
conscientiousness, extroversion,
dominance
 Specifycharacteristics/traits are
necessary for specific positions
Personality assessment measures for
“fit”
Instruments: LTQ (Leadership Trait
Questionnaire), Myers Briggs (Team
context)
Strengths of the Trait Approach
 Intuitively appeals to followers
 Perception that leaders are worthy of following
because of their traits – ethical, worthy,
smart, have integrity, care about you …
 People “need” to view leaders as gifted
 Is credible due to a century of research support
 Highlights the role of the leader in the leadership
process
 Provides benchmarks for what to look for when
choosing / evaluating a leader
Criticism of the Trait Approach
 No definitive list of leadership traits
 Many lists have emerged
 Doesn’t take into account situational effects – leaders in one
situation may not work well in another situation.
 Leaders in one situation may not be leaders in another
situation
 Many lists of essential leadership traits are highly subjective
 Research often fails to look at traits in relationship to
leadership outcomes – only look at qualities in a leader;
not what qualities are better suited in a given situation to
get the job done.
 It is always difficult to measure a trait in an individual
 Limited usefulness for training & development – can’t really
train someone to be more intelligent; in a whole year of
education, a person’s IQ may go up by 1-3 points …; can’t
change certain traits
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2U7ZgCMLjHc
 Reflection: What do you think are the personality traits of
this leader?
 What were his strengths? What was the role of sports in
unifying the country? What was the big picture that the
leader was asking his people to see?
 The conditions in the country were largely unfavourable,
and the people were deeply divided. Would an effective
leader see opportunity in crisis as well?
Activity (Contd)

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQhns5AwAkA
 Reflection questions:
 What kind of a personality would you say Leaders have?
 Would you say a Leader is so much more effective when she has a good team?
What do you think would be some of the values and behaviors that the team
should show in order to make the leader more effective
Topic 3 - Leadership –
Skills Approach
Skills Approach
Definition
Leadership skills –
Learned (not innate) abilities used to accomplish a set of goals and
objectives – characteristics that can be learnt and developed (not innate
or genetic)

 Leader-centered perspective (only looking at leader, not

follower, situation)
 Emphasis on skills that can be learned and developed (not
genetic make-up, or personality traits)
Overview – Two versions of Skills Approach

 Three-Skill Approach (Katz, 1955) – older, simpler

approach

 Skills Model (Mumford et al., 2000) – lot more

complete and complex
3 Basic Leadership (management/administrative) Skills of Katz

 3 layers of leadership – Imagine a Pizza making Company

 Supervisory management – person supervises one of the pizza
making stores, 4 people that make pizza and work under him (low
conceptual skills needed)
 Middle Management – runs / owns the entire store - owns the
franchise, and has 3-4 supervisors reporting to him. (need all skills)
 Top Management – Run the company – may be 10 – 100 – 1000
stores. (low technical skills needed)
Technical -how to make pizza, do minor repairs or fix oven;
Human – work with, manage & motivate people; Conceptual – big
picture – how organization works, how does the company operate.
Katz says leaders need all 3 skills – but, relative importance of
these skills change based on level of management.
Basic Leadership Skills
Leaders need all three skills – but, relative importance changes based on level of
management.
Skills Model of Leadership – Mumford et al.
(2000)
This is a Capability model
 To identify the factors that maximize a leader’s performance, especially
in problem solving.
 Emphasizes the capabilities that make effective leadership possible
rather than what leaders do.
 Look at how well leaders do – how many pizzas do they sell … how
well do they figure out the next step in their business plan
A Capability Model – focus on their capability
• Suggests many people have the potential for leadership.
• Emphasizes on capabilities of leaders rather than what they do ie if you develop
these capabilities/competencies you can be an effective leader; Getting things
done / performance
• What are these capabilities? 5 components of skills model
Skills Model of Leadership – Mumford et al. (2000)
In order to have effective problem solving outcomes we need -
Competencies (Skills that can be learnt) –
Problem solving – to solve issues
Social Judgment – work with people
Knowledge – know what’s going on

Competencies (or competencies) lead to outcomes.

Also recognizes that Individual traits (eg. Cognitive ability) or attributes are also
important. Also do you learn from past experience - these attributes learned from
experience are called crystallized cognitive ability – learnt from experience and now it
stays in your mind because of your experience; other attributes include degree of
motivation; personality traits (previous topic).
Model includes - individual traits + competencies = outcomes (measures leadership
effectiveness)
These 3 are influenced by career experience (work that you have already done, which
influences your motivation, behavior etc) and environmental influence (outside of
person’s experience).
First 3 Components of Skills Model
Skills Model
The 3 components –
 Individual Attributes
 Competencies
 Leadership outcomes
Are influenced by career experience and environmental influence
Career experience – work that you’ve already done teaches you who you
are, it influences you, gives you confidence due to the experience
(Crystallized cognitive ability) – these impact traits and competencies.
Environmental influence – outside of the person and person’s experience;
set of employees, co-workers, economic/cultural influences, customers
Both career and environment influence the 3 components (traits, skills,
outcomes) – we need people with competencies and we also need to
develop these competencies in people.
All 5 Components of Skill Model – complete model
Skills Approach – Building blocks of skills
Strengths of Skills Approach
 Describing leadership in terms of skills makes leadership
available to everyone – all people can learn and develop
these skills – learnt behavior
 Emphasizes the role of experience and environment – tell us
the importance of environment and experience (not just the
leader’s innate traits – its about the interaction between innate
traits and environment and experience).
 Provides a framework for leadership education programs to
include topics such as
 Creative Problem Solving
 Conflict Resolution
 Teamwork
Criticism of Skills Approach

 The theories are very broad, making it very

general and not very precise. Applies to all – not
just leaders

 The difference between individual attributes

(traits) and skills is not always clear. Eg people
with better cognitive abilities will learn skills
more quickly than others – so should you hire
people with skills or should you hire smart people
who can acquire skills quickly.
Reflection

 Let
the wise and understanding (traits) people
hear and increase in learning, and let the ones
who understand live a guided and directed life.

Traits: Being wise and understanding

Skills:
learning how to navigate life, living a
guided and directed life
If you have traits of being wise, you will live
guided life.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH0IfJDRQ7M

 Reflection: What power base do you think Jack Ma relies

on as a leader?
 Would you say Jack Ma is an autocratic leader?
 What are the qualities that distinguish him?
 Are rewards and punishments effective and important
‘arrows’ in a leader’s quiver? Under what conditions do
you think rewards and punishments are most effective?
 Topic 4 – Behavioral
Approach to Leadership
(Leadership Styles)
Leadership Behavior

The truth of the matter is that you

always know the right thing to do. The
hard part is doing it.
Norman Schwartzkopf, former United
States Army general
 What is a Behavioral approach?
 Style
 The habitual choices that one makes in behavior – dress
code, talking, eating.
 Leadership style
 The habitual choices of behavior that one makes to help
others work together to achieve a common goal. Idea is
choices of behavior – what do I usually do with others so we
can work together to accomplish a common goal.
 The Behavioral Approach
 Emphasizes the habitual behavior (what leader actually does) of the leader
(not traits or skills)
 Focuses exclusively on how leaders tend to act along two crucial dimensions.

2 types or dimensions of Behaviors

 Task behaviors
-Help group members achieve goals and objectives
-“Initiating Structure”
-“Concern for Results”
 Relationship behaviors
-Help group members feel comfortable with themselves, with each other,
and the situation
-Develop healthy relationships
-“Consideration”

-“Concern for People”

 The Behavioral Approach
 Two dimensions of leader behavior
 People oriented behavior – showing concern for
employees, spending time with employees and getting
to know them, making conversation with them, connect
with them…
 Task-oriented behavior – ensuring the task is done; do
more, creating an atmosphere for employee success –
eg resource allocation, deadlines, equipment..
The Michigan studies identified two similar
dimensions of leadership behavior:

1. Job-centered—same as initiating
structure.

2. Employee-centered—same as showing
consideration.
Leadership Grid (Blake and Mouton. 1966)
Leadership Grid (Blake and Mouton. 1966)
 Vertical axis – concern for people
 Horizontal axis – concern for task
 1,1 – Impoverished leadership / management (low for people,
low for task)
 9,1 – country club leadership / management - let people do as
they like so they are happy (high for people, low for task)
 1, 9 – Authority / compliant leadership/produce or perish/ sweat
shop / management don’t care about people – (high for task, low
for people) – opposite of country club
 9,9– Team leadership / management Best way to function;
concerned about both accomplishing task and helping people
 5,5– Middle of the road – quite concerned about both – most
common
The managerial (leadership) grid has 81 possible combinations, but identifies five
major styles:

1. The Impoverished Manager—has low concern for production and low concern
for people. The leader is uninvolved in the work and withdraws from people.
2. The Sweatshop Manager—has high concern for production but low concern for
people. The leader is results driven, and people are regarded as tools to that
end.
3. The Country Club Manager—has high concern for people and low concern for
task accomplishment. The leader focuses on being agreeable and keeping
human relations smooth.
4. The Status Quo Manager—has medium concern for both production and people.
The leader emphasizes work requirements to a moderate degree and shows
moderate consideration for the needs of people
5. The Fully Functioning Manager—has high concern for both production and
people. The leader cares intensely about task accomplishment and cares deeply
about people.
Strengths of Style Approach

 A major shift in leadership research from focusing on traits and

skills to examining behaviors and actions of leaders concerning
followers
 Easy to understand system of classifying leadership behaviors: task
and relationship, validated by a broad range of research.
 Allows leaders to classify and evaluate their own behaviors – helps
us evaluate our own leadership styles – wherever it might be.
 If you are a leader anywhere – think about what you are doing to
accomplish tasks and what you are doing to strengthen relationships
 Everything you do either hinders or facilitates one or both – task and
relationship – so accordingly adjust your behavior
 Criticisms
 Itpredicts that the most effective leadership style is the High-
High style (high task/high relationship).
 This is usually true, but not always. Eg. If your responsibility is
to cut the budget, fire people you may not be able to stay high
on relationship; Also if you are working with people who are
already very competent, then you can focus just on
relationship with minimal direction. High, high may not be the
best in all situations.
However, employees are always more satisfied with
supervisors who have a high concern for people.
 No universal style of leadership is effective or ineffective in
all situations.
ACTIVITY - Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) - Activity
Respondents to the questionnaire described their leaders’ behaviors toward them
in terms of two dimensions:

1. Initiating structure (task)—the extent to which leaders take action to

define the relationship between themselves and their staff, as well as the
role that they expect each staff member to assume. Leaders who score
high on initiating structure establish well-defined channels of
communication and ways of getting the job done. Five assessment items
measuring initiating structure are as follows:
a. Try out your own new ideas in the work group.
b. Encourage the slow-working people in the group to work harder.
c. Emphasize meeting deadlines.
d. Meet with the group at regularly scheduled times.
e. See to it that people in the group are working up to capacity.
ACTIVITY - Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
Respondents to the questionnaire described their leaders’
behaviors toward them in terms of two dimensions :

2. Showing consideration (relationship)—the extent to which leaders take

action to develop trust, respect, support, and friendship with subordinates.
Leaders who score high on showing consideration typically are helpful,
trusting, and respectful, and have warm relationships with staff members. Five
questionnaire items that measure showing consideration are as follows:
a. Be helpful to people in the work group.
b. Treat all people in the group as your equals.
c. Be willing to make changes.
d. Back up what people under you do.
e. Do little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the group
Topic 5 – Situational Leadership
Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969)

 Leadersshould match their leadership style

(degree to which they are task or relationship
oriented) to the competence and commitment
of subordinates.

 Focuseson choosing a leadership style appropriate for

the situation
 Usedextensively in organizational leadership training
and development
Leadership Styles

 Leadership style - the behavior pattern of an

individual who attempts to influence others

It includes both:
 Directive(task) behaviors – getting the task done /
telling people what to do
 Supportive (relationship) behaviors (concerned about
people)
Situational Leadership II (after it was modified)
 All leaders should have all 4 leadership styles –
S = Styles
S1 (highly directive, telling people what to do, not very
supportive),
S2 (highly directive and highly supportive like the 9,9 style
on the grid in the last topic)
S3 (highly supportive, not directive),
S4 (not directive, not supportive like the 1,1 style on the
grid in the last topic)
Leaders should be able to use all 4 styles depending on the
situation – what is the “situation”?
- Development levels of followers – their commitment and
competence
All leaders should have 4 Leadership Styles:
S1 – S4
Development Levels of followers
 D= Development level of followers

Definition of “Development” (D) - The degree to which subordinates have the

competence and commitment necessary to accomplish a given task or activity
 Dimension Definitions –
 D1 – low competence; high commitment
 D2 - some competence; low commitment
 D3 – moderate-high competence (getting to know); low commitment
 D4 - high competence; high commitment (highly developed)

High Moderate Low

D4 D3 D2 D1
Developed Developing
The Developmental Level of the Follower
Determines the Appropriate Leadership Style
Hersey & Blanchard’s SLT – choosing the most suitable
leadership style
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Two dimensions – Supportive/relationship/people/consideration/compassion behavior

and Task behavior; Leadership style will depend on readiness of staff

 Follows a life cycle of various stages – Tell
Sell Participate Delegate OR
Telling Child / New employees (High Task /Low Relationship; give
directions / micromanage) – Selling Adolescence/Employees now know
the job better (HT,HR; easier to get them to do things if you
convince/reasoning with them is good for them) – Participating Young
adulthood (LT, HR; knows the job, no supervision needed, knowledge
based trust) – Delegating Full adults with their own children / full
understanding of job (LT,LR we trust that they will do tasks, delegate &
move on)
How Does The Situational Approach Work?
 In any given situation Leaders have 2 tasks:
1st Task - Diagnose the Situation
 Identify the developmental level of employee/worker/subordinate – D1, D2, D3 or
D4.
 Ask questions like:
 What is the task subordinates are being asked to perform?
 How complicated is it?
 What is their skill set?
 How motivated are they to do the job?

 2nd Task – Adapt their style

• The leadership style must correspond to the employee’s development level.
Accordingly choose the style – S1, S2, S3, S4.
Strengths
 Emphasizes Leader Flexibility.
Leaders should change their style based on task
requirements and subordinate needs. Very good and new
idea.

 Emphasizes Differential Treatment.

Leaders need to treat each subordinate according to his/her
unique needs. Don’t do the same for all – key idea. Respond
to individual needs in order to get the best work out of them
and encourage them.
Semi Strengths
 Marketplace Approval.

 Consultants often promote situational leadership as providing

a credible model for training managers to become effective
leaders. Taught in seminars.

 Relative Clarity.

 Situational leadership clearly states what a leader should and

should not do in various settings. It clarifies when a leader
should or should not act in certain ways.
 Criticism
 Developmental levels aren’t convincing (D1 to D4).
 Why should motivational levels go down when competence goes up?
This is assumed in this model. Usually when competence goes up
people become more committed because they can do the task better.
 Competence levels only progress continuously for people doing routine
tasks. Competence increases with experience – linear progress in skills.
Example: House painting – first time you mess it up but then as you do
it again and again, you get better. Linear progress in routine tasks.
 Non routine tasks eg Not true when technology or job requirements
are changing. Learning new things continuously – eg getting a new
position – initial struggle followed by competence.
 Also,“support” may not necessarily tally with specific
“developmental” level. It may be linked to other factors like task
requirement, personal issues/life situation – not depending on their
competence or commitment etc.
Criticism

 Most people would say they need support depending on the task
requirements, the relational context, and their life situation.
 Research fails to support the basic prescriptions of the model Of
S1, S2, S3, S4 for D1, D2, D3, D4 don’t define when you should
use those styles.
 Situational leadership assessments of leadership effectiveness
may classify effective leaders as ineffective if they tend to use
the same style across situations (e.g. high task, high relationship
style).
 Not very accurate in predicting when you need the different
styles.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYUJjpIxkCU
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgrNOhafmwo
 Reflection:
 Compare the work culture at Amazon and Facebook. What would you say is
the role of leaders in creating such work cultures?
TOPIC 6 – Path-Goal Theory
Path - Goal
Here we need to look at the situation to determine what
type of behavior is appropriate/ effective/best suited.
 Leaders should motivate followers to accomplish
designated goals
 Need to have a path for followers to get to the goal

 Focus is on the environment and setting rather than

traits or skills of the leader. The leader’s behavior
should correspond to or take into consideration :
1. The characteristics (needs) of the followers
2. The work setting
Path - Goal
 Make sure the followers follow the path to achieve the goals; that
they go around the obstacles and stay motivated all the time.
 For this, the leader needs to –
Define the goal
Clarify the path
Remove the obstacles or show them how to overcome them
Provide support – encouragement, better relationship, resources,
material.
Need to have a path for followers to get to the goal
Eg – helping leadership students complete their assignment - lay out
the path, motivate them to stay on the path to achieve this goal. This
will enable them to complete their work. How do I determine what
type of behavior will work well?
Path-Goal Theory
Important Components of PG Theory
 Leaders need to figure out what they can do (what leadership
behaviors) will motivate workers so we can keep them motivated.
For this, we need to consider follower characteristics and task
characteristics. This will determine appropriate behavior to motivate
followers. Helps leaders figure out the type of appropriate behavior
for the specific follower and task characteristics to keep workers
Follower
motivated.
Characteristics

Leadership
Behaviors

Task Characteristics
Leader Behavior – 4 types

4 Types of Leadership Behaviors

 Directive (Task)
 Supportive (Relational – focus on relationships)
 Achievement-oriented (give Identity, status, praise
to a worker if they work well)
 Participative(involve them in the Process of
decision making)
These 4 types of behaviors are measured by the Path-
Goal Leadership Questionnaire.
Follower Characteristics

Follower Characteristics
 High Need for Affiliation – need to be close to people
 Leadership should be friendly and concerned.
 => More Supportive Leadership Behaviors
 Low Need for Affiliation – want to be independent
 Leaders don’t need to be as friendly and concerned.
 => Less Supportive Leadership Behaviors
Follower Characteristics
 High Need for Structure –Some people constantly need directions
because they are clueless or new or don’t feel capable of the task,
or are just careless and hence need more structure
 Leadership should provides psychological structure, task clarity, &
greater sense of certainty in work setting.
 => More Directive Leadership Behaviors
 Especially if the follower does not feel capable of the task.
 Low Need for Structure – some people know what to do –
they don’t need others to direct them
 Leadership need not be directive in work setting.
 => Less Directive Leadership Behaviors
 Especially if the follower feels capable of the task
Follower Characteristics
 Desire for Control
 -High desire for control: because of Internal locus of control (captain of their destiny) –
they feel they can master their circumstances and they can know what they are doing
 Leadership should allow followers to be in charge of their work & involved in decision-
making processes
 More Participative Leadership Behaviors – letting others decide their path, goals, and
how they can achieve their target.
 -Low desire for control because of External locus of control or feel like victims of
circumstances, that they are not master of circumstances.
 Leadership should relieve anxiety about outside forces controlling the follower’s
circumstances and show them what they could do by telling them exactly what to do
so they don’t worry about taking any decisions
 More Directive Leadership (telling them exactly what needs to be done)
Task Characteristics
 Task – what are the workers supposed to do?
 If task is highly repetitive eg. Flipping burgers or folding towels
 Since the task is already ,mastered, the burger flipper needs more
supportive leadership for encouragement and motivation
 If task is complex with unclear rules and needs a lot of thinking
 The leaders needs to provide more directive leadership behaviors –
stepwise details; especially if the followers don’t know how to do
 Ambiguous tasks – no one knows how to do it – engineering /
technology (not clear how it is to be done)
 More participative and achievement-oriented leadership behaviors –
people need to be included in decision-making / be involved / be
respected / everyone to come together to solve these ambiguous tasks.
Applying PG Theory
Strengths and Weaknesses
 Strengths
 Useful theoretical framework.
 Four dimensions of leadership behavior – greater choice (not
just two)
 Includes Useful variables (work and follower characteristics)
for determining leadership behavior

 Highlights
the importance of motivation /
encouragement.
 Practical model.
 Emphasizes helping followers. Encourage one another to build
up one another.

Weaknesses
 Difficult to implement because -
 So many variables makes it confusing. TH
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
 This model is different from the others (Path goal; Hersey Blanchard’s SLT) because it says
Leaders cannot change style / leaders are unable to change their leadership style (you are what
you are)/ we have a predetermined style which we are stuck with – task-oriented or
relationship-oriented. So you have to match their leadership style to the proper situation. This
theory is a bit out of favor -

Situation favorableness / Situational control (situations

favor certain types of leaders) is determined by :
 Leader-member relations (could be good or poor or …) – quality of relationship; they like you or
they dislike you/do we like them. Acceptance of leader by group members…
 Task structure (structured or unstructured) – routine, unstructured, structured (clear
goals/procedures)
 Leader position power (strong or weak) – Power of the leader (New leader for a very old team ??
Or what if the leader is related to the owner) – reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, expert
(Refer to Topic 1).
According to Fiedler if the situation calls for a task-oriented leader but the leader is
relationship-oriented then the leader must be replaced.
How do you determine which type of a leader you are – Least Preferred Co-worker scale (LPC
scale) – person that we prefer to work with the least.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model –
LPC scale – Least Preferred Co-worker
Fiedler’s Contingency Model –

8 different situations –
eg situation I – good leader-member relationship; structured task; and strong leader
position power. TASK oriented leader is better (Low LPC)
eg situation IV – good leader-member relationship; unstructured task; and weak leader
position power. RELATIONSHIP oriented leader is better (High LPC)

eg situation VI – You’ve been newly appointed to supervise a team of 8 people who work
on an assembly line. These people hate you. You used to be a member of their team
until they kicked you out. You found a new team, then rose up in the ranks and then
were promoted to supervise your old team. Poor leader-member relationship; structured
task (assembly line/do the same job everyday); and weak leader position power (can’t,
hire fire, no coercive power or power to give rewards….). RELATIONSHIP oriented leader
is better in this situation (High LPC). But if the leader is Task oriented she/he needs to be
replaced.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model –
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBuIGBCF9jc
 Reflection questions:
 What kind of a personality would you say Leaders have?
 Would you say a Leader is so much more effective when she has a good team?
What do you think would be some of the values and behaviors that the team
should show in order to make the leader more effective
 Is a leader only more effective if the tasks are as challenging as the ones that
we have seen in the Seals example?
 Would stress bring out the best in the leader and the team?
Topic 5 – Situational Leadership
Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969)

 Leadersshould match their leadership style

(degree to which they are task or relationship
oriented) to the competence and commitment
of subordinates.

 Focuseson choosing a leadership style appropriate for

the situation
 Usedextensively in organizational leadership training
and development
Leadership Styles

 Leadership style - the behavior pattern of an

individual who attempts to influence others

It includes both:
 Directive(task) behaviors – getting the task done /
telling people what to do
 Supportive (relationship) behaviors (concerned about
people)
Situational Leadership II (after it was modified)
 All leaders should have all 4 leadership styles –
S = Styles
S1 (highly directive, telling people what to do, not very
supportive),
S2 (high directive and highly supportive like the 9,9 style on
the grid in the last topic)
S3 (highly supportive, not directive),
S4 (not directive, not supportive like the 1,1 style on the
grid in the last topic)
Leaders should be able to use all 4 styles depending on the
situation – what is the “situation”?
- Development levels of followers – their commitment and
competence
All leaders should have 4 Leadership Styles:
S1 – S4
Development Levels of followers
 D= Development level of followers

Definition of “Development” (D) - The degree to which subordinates have the

competence and commitment necessary to accomplish a given task or activity
 Dimension Definitions –
 D1 – low competence; high commitment
 D2 - some competence; low commitment
 D3 – moderate-high competence (getting to know); low commitment
 D4 - high competence; high commitment (highly developed)

High Moderate Low

D4 D3 D2 D1
Developed Developing
The Developmental Level of the Follower
Determines the Appropriate Leadership Style
Hersey & Blanchard’s SLT – choosing the most suitable
leadership style
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Two dimensions – Supportive/relationship/people/consideration/compassion behavior

and Task behavior; Leadership style will depend on readiness of staff

 Follows a life cycle of various stages – Tell
Sell Participate Delegate OR
Telling Child / New employees (High Task /Low Relationship; give
directions / micromanage) – Selling Adolescence/Employees now know
the job better (HT,HR; easier to get them to do things if you
convince/reasoning with them is good for them) – Participating Young
adulthood (LT, HR; knows the job, no supervision needed, knowledge
based trust) – Delegating Full adults with their own children / full
understanding of job (LT,LR we trust that they will do tasks, delegate &
move on)
How Does The Situational Approach Work?
 In any given situation Leaders have 2 tasks:
1st Task - Diagnose the Situation
 Identify the developmental level of employee/worker/subordinate – D1, D2, D3 or
D4.
 Ask questions like:
 What is the task subordinates are being asked to perform?
 How complicated is it?
 What is their skill set?
 How motivated are they to do the job?

 2nd Task – Adapt their style

• The leadership style must correspond to the employee’s development level.
Accordingly choose the style – S1, S2, S3, S4.
Strengths
 Emphasizes Leader Flexibility.
Leaders should change their style based on task
requirements and subordinate needs. Very good and new
idea.

 Emphasizes Differential Treatment.

Leaders need to treat each subordinate according to his/her
unique needs. Don’t do the same for all – key idea. Respond
to individual needs in order to get the best work out of them
and encourage them.
Semi Strengths
 Marketplace Approval.

 Consultants often promote situational leadership as providing

a credible model for training managers to become effective
leaders. Taught in seminars.

 Relative Clarity.

 Situational leadership clearly states what a leader should and

should not do in various settings. It clarifies when a leader
should or should not act in certain ways.
 Criticism
 Developmental levels aren’t convincing (D1 to D4).
 Why should motivational levels go down when competence goes up?
This is assumed in this model. Usually when competence goes up
people become more committed because they can do the task better.
 Competence levels only progress continuously for people doing routine
tasks. Competence increases with experience – linear progress in skills.
Example: House painting – first time you mess it up but then as you do
it again and again, you get better. Linear progress in routine tasks.
 Non routine tasks eg Not true when technology or job requirements
are changing. Learning new things continuously – eg getting a new
position – initial struggle followed by competence.
 Also,“support” may not necessarily tally with specific
“developmental” level. It may be linked to other factors like task
requirement, personal issues/life situation – not depending on their
competence or commitment etc.
Criticism

 Most people would say they need support depending on the task
requirements, the relational context, and their life situation.
 Research fails to support the basic prescriptions of the model Of
S1, S2, S3, S4 for D1, D2, D3, D4 don’t define when you should
use those styles.
 Situational leadership assessments of leadership effectiveness
may classify effective leaders as ineffective if they tend to use
the same style across situations (e.g. high task, high relationship
style).
 Not very accurate in predicting when you need the different
styles.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gYUJjpIxkCU
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KgrNOhafmwo
 Reflection:
 Compare the work culture at Amazon and Facebook. What would you say is
the role of leaders in creating such work cultures?
Topic 7 – Leader-member
Exchange Theory
Leader-member Exchange Theory (LMX)
 Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory: very important
because it emphasizes on the relationship a leader has with
followers
 Focuses on the relationship between the leader and follower.

 Views leadership as a process

focuses on the interactions between a leader and
subordinates.

 In contrast to focusing on
Characteristics of the leader
Characteristics of the follower
Characteristics of the context
Early Studies – early 1970s
 Early studies of LMX were called--Vertical Dyad Linkage (VDL)
 Strange vocabulary (member = follower)
 Leader’s relationship to a work unit (followers) viewed as a series of
vertical dyads (= relationships)
 Leader – member exchange means leader member relationship; some
relationships are high quality with a lot of trust, others are low quality
with little or no trust.
LMX: In-Group and Out-Group of Subordinates

The
interactions
lead to
relationships
considered
“in-group” or
“out-group”

Ingroup = Followers with whom the leader has a high

quality relationship; positive relationship (trust, communication,
respect, commitment).
Outgroup = Followers with whom the leader has low
quality relationship (not very positive)
This describes reality at workplace.
In-Group & Out-Group Followers
In-Group
– more information, influence the leader more,
confidence, & more concern from Leader – so
they work better
– more dependable, highly involved, &
communicative than out-group

Out-Group
– less close to leader
– usually just come to work, do their
job, & go home
Central Idea of LMX
Leader needs to make high quality relationship with most or as many as
possible. Things move in a better direction

 High quality leader-member exchanges (relationship) result in:

 Less employee turnover
 Higher performance evaluations
 Greater likelihood of promotion
 Greater organizational commitment
 More attention and support from the leader

“Leadership Making” when high quality relationships between

the leader and followers are developed with maximum followers.
If a leader just wanted to have a small group of favorites, it could
be destructive for the organization.
How does LMX work?
PRESCRIPTIVE
 Leader should nurture high-quality exchanges with all
subordinates (not just a select few)
 Rather than concentrating on differences, leader must
focus on ways to build trust & respect with all subordinates
– resulting in entire work group becoming an in-group

PREDICTIVE
 The quality of subordinates’ interactions with their
leader / supervisors indicates likelihood of their getting
promotions or advancing in the organization.
Strengths
 LMX theory is the only leadership approach that
makes the leader’s relationship with the
follower the centerpiece of the leadership
process; it focusses on that relationship
 LMXtheory points to the importance of positive
communication in leadership
 Solid research indicates that healthy LMX
(relationship between leaders and followers)leads
to positive organizational outcomes
Criticism
 On the surface (in-groups and out-groups), LMX
appears unfair and discriminatory because of
the in-groups and out-groups As a good leader,
one needs to make the in-group as broad as
possible.
 Accuratemeasurement of the quality of leader-
member exchanges is questioned. Not easy to
measure the quality of relationship.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kUenV_bj6EE

 Reflection: Was bringing in an “outsider” a mistake for

TATA Sons? Should TATA Sons have considered internal
hiring of CEO?
Topic 8 – Transformational
Leadership
Transformational Leadership (TL)

Very popular theory which explains how a good leader can

transform/change the followers in such a way that the groups
goals are accomplished.
Focusses on changing the follower – by getting them involved,
engaged – emotions play a role.
Theory comes from the assumption that followers long-term
goals, values, ethics, standards, can all be changed. Instead of
thinking about themselves, they’ll be more concerned about
the organization and its mission.
Transformational leadership is seen in all countries,
institutions, and organizational levels, but it is more prevalent
in public institutions and at lower organizational levels
Transformational Leadership (TL)

 Process – Assumes that leader’s interactions can transform

followers.
 Influence - Assumes that a leader can transform followers to
accomplish what they wouldn’t do otherwise – making them better.
 Core elements – Assumes that followers’ emotions, values, ethics,
standards, and long-term goals can be changed. Make them more
concerned about the well-being of the organization.
 Measure – Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) which
measures leadership behaviors (the 4 Is). MLQ is Easy to use.

 Bass developed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, or M L

Q, which is a 360-degree feedback instrument that assesses five
transformational and three transactional factors and a non-
leadership factor
 Transformational Leadership Factors: The 4 I’s
The idea is that if leaders use these 4 I’s they can transform followers (all seem
like personality traits).
 Idealized Influence (super-hero whom everyone respects and wants to be
like)
 Being a strong role model
 High standards of moral and ethical conduct
 Inspirational Motivation (leader has high expectations and communicates
these to followers and inspires them to achieve these goals)
 High expectations
 Inspiring followers to commitment to a shared vision
 Intellectual Stimulation (stimulating them to be innovative)
 Stimulating followers to be creative and innovative
 Develop innovative ways of dealing with organization issues
 Individualized Consideration (caring for followers)
 Listening carefully to the needs of followers
 Helping followers grow through personal challenges
Transformational Leadership TL
 Process of engaging with others to create a connection that
increases motivation and morality (changes their values) in
both the leader and the follower.
 Like a super-hero leadership that transforms the values of
followers
 Leader is attentive to the needs and motives and values and
concerns of followers and tries to help each follower to reach
their fullest potential.
 Abraham Lincoln (President of the north, during the civil
war) – raised the hopes and demands of millions of people,
telling them that all people were created equal and must have
equal rights; motivating them to give their best to end slavery.
Transformational Vs Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership Focuses on the exchanges that occur
between leaders and their followers – if you do this, I do that ….
 Assign contingent rewards - reward people for doing good.
 A politician may say that there’ll be No new taxes if you vote for me.
 Car dealer tells his workers – if you sell more cars, you’ll get a
bonus (more work for more pay).
 Teacher would say if you do these assignments with good
standards, you’ll get a good grade.
 A manager may say if you surpass goals you’ll get a promotion and
a higher pay.

Transactional exchanges that can be observed in all organizations

Pseudo-Transformational Leadership
 Focuses on the leader’s own personal interests rather
than the interests of his or her followers.

 These Leaders

– transform in a negative way

– self-consumed, exploitive, power- oriented, with
warped moral values; stir people’s emotions but use them
to do evil
 includes leaders like

 Dictators misleading people

Strengths
 Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes
sense to them.
 Emphasizes followers. TL emphasizes followers’ emotions,
needs, values, and morals.
 Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of
leadership. The dimensions measured (especially the 4 I’s and
contingent rewards – reward people for doing good – like
transactional leadership) impact followers’
 Motivation
 Performance
 Satisfaction
 Criticism
Lacks clarity in concepts and measurements.
 The 4 I’s overlap – measurement is not distinct in MLQ (those who are inspiring are also
caring….)
 Transactional and transformational leadership overlap. People expect good leaders to be
transactional.
 Essentially ignores task oriented behavior (such as planning, defining roles, defining objectives,
problem solving) which is associated with good leadership.
 Validity of MLQ is weak.
 Does the MLQ simply measure how much a follower likes a leader?
 Do leaders with high MLQ scores actually transform their followers?

 TL treats leadership more as a set of personality traits and abilities than a behavior that
can be taught. Eg. A charismatic leader who has certain habits

 Has the potential to be abused.

 Without absolute moral standards, the difference between transformational and pseudo-transformational leadership
is blurred. Think of a political leader … some will see her or him as a transformational leader, others will see her or
him as pseudo-transformational leader.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxskbwkHN6U
 Reflection:
 What would you say are the reasons for GM’s failure to turnaround its performance?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TBuIGBCF9jc
 Reflection questions:
 What kind of a personality would you say Leaders have?
 Would you say a Leader is so much more effective when she has a good team? What do you
think would be some of the values and behaviors that the team should show in order to
make the leader more effective
 Is a leader only more effective if the tasks are as challenging as the ones that we have seen
in the Seals example?
 Would stress bring out the best in the leader and the team?
Topic 9 – Authentic Leadership
Authentic Leadership
 Authentic Leadership--focuses on whether or not leadership is genuine or real.
Theory is still in formative stages.
 Authentic Leadership Characteristics:
 Authentic leaders lead from their own convictions – use their own judgments, views, experiences.
 Authentic leaders are original, they don’t copy what others do.

 Interest in Authentic Leadership

 Increasing in recent times due to unethical behaviors of politicians and businesses.
 Due to large scale deceptions, shameful behaviors, losses of huge amounts
 In response People claim they want trustworthy leaders.

 There are a Number of Versions of Authentic Leadership

1. Intrapersonal perspective (looking within)
2. Interpersonal perspective (looking at relationships)
3. Practical perspective (Bill George)
4. Developmental perspective
1. Intrapersonal Authentic Leadership
 Intrapersonal Definition:
 Leadership based on self-concept and how self-concept relates to actions (Shamir &
Eilam,2005).
 Self-concept depends on the life story of the leader (critical life events – what made
you become what you are today – your experiences and your choices);
autobiography, own history, choices made.
 Self-concept – good leaders have a good opinion of themselves, they have high levels of
self concept (Core Self Evaluation – CSE – self-concept, locus of control, self-esteem, self
evaluation, emotional stability ) have high CSE, have confidence
2. Interpersonal Authentic Leadership

 Interpersonal Definition:
 Leadership is created by leaders and followers together, being
relationally authentic (Eagly, 2005); based on their
trustworthy relationship

 Itis a reciprocal process because leaders affect followers and

followers affect leaders. Both affect each other.
3. Practical Approach to Authentic Leadership
 Bill George, a popular business author.
5 Characteristics of Authentic Leaders
A sense of purpose
 Strong values / sure of themselves / they know what
they believe is right
 Trusting relationships with others / developed healthy
relationships with others
 Act upon their values
 Sensitive to others
 Good, practical advice.
4. Developmental Authentic Leadership

Definition:
“A pattern that draws upon and promotes both
positive psychological capacities and a positive
ethical climate, to foster greater self-awareness,
an internalized moral perspective, balanced
processing of information, and relational
transparency on the part of leaders working with
followers, fostering positive self-development.”
-Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and
Peterson (2008)
 Factors from which Authentic Leadership is Developed
and which it Promotes – causes and effects
 Positive
Psychological Capacities (being psychologically healthy
and promoting psychological health). Psychological health is
promoted by -
 Confidence
 Hope – things will be better
 Optimism – things will work out
 Resilience – do well even when things are not good
 PositiveEthical Climate (Moral Reasoning Capacities)
 Being able to decide between right and wrong
 Promoting justice, greater good of the organization or community
Basic Model of Authentic Leadership
Four Components
 Self-awareness
 Reflecting on one’s core values, identity, emotions, motives
 Being aware of and trusting one’s own feelings
 Internalized moral perspective
 I know what’s right and I use that as a guide to my behavior
 Using internal moral standards to guide behavior
 Balanced processing
 Ability to analyze information objectively and explore other
people’s opinions / listen to others before making a decision
 Not get overwhelmed by ones feelings or desires
 Relational transparency
 Being open and honest in presenting one’s true self to others
 Interpersonal
Strengths
 Responds to society’s need for trustworthy leadership;
honest leaders make people happy. Fills a void in an
uncertain world.
 Provides broad guidelines for those who want to become
better people (Bill George).
 Like transformational and servant leadership, authentic
leadership has an explicit moral dimension – emphasizes
what’s right and wrong; some versions have a focus on
collective good, others on personal values.
 Unlike traits that only some people exhibit (charismatic
leader that transforms everyone), everyone can learn to be
more authentic.
Criticism
 The theory is still in the formative stages, so some concepts are not clear or substantiated.
 It’s difficult to distinguish between authentic leadership and narcissism (centered on oneself and
loving oneself and think that oneself is the greatest) . Leaders high in narcissism will do all they
can to convince themselves and their followers that they are authentic.
 See the story of Greg Mortenson – He was portrayed as an authentic leader; he raised loads of
money to develop schools for poor; appearing to be super sincere and a wonderful person;
shortly after, it all exploded – it turned out that he was fake and he never did any of the
things he said he did – he turned out to be inauthentic.
 The rationale for including positive psychological capacities as a part of authentic leadership is
not clear.
 It seems as if random concepts are simply stuck together. Not well defined.
 Should we just be studying the trait of honesty instead? Do we want honesty leaders or
authentic leaders?
 Or is authentic leadership essentially emotional intelligence and/or purpose in life (Bill
George)?
 Nothing is clear.
 One of the main researchers, Fred Walumbwa, had many of the papers stopped. Awaiting data
upon which they were based.
Reflection

“Every tree is known by its fruit.”

Good trees bear good fruits and bad trees
produce bad fruits –
The way to tell if someone is authentic with
good values, is not by what they say, but by
what they actually do in their life.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlpFptplu1A
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CVnb7A7D-Y0

 Reflection:
 Does the work culture at Comcast provide an opportunity for the employees
to be empowered-find more meaning in their work?
Topic 10 Servant Leadership
Description
 Servant Leadership (SL – somewhat incomplete): Just
an aspect of leadership, can be used in addition to
all previous theories - A paradox: leaders will serve
and influence others
 What happens when leaders put followers first?
 Leaders wants to serve and do good for others.

 Interestin Servant Leadership

 Most scholarship has been prescriptive: What are the
characteristics of good leaders that really care about
the people they lead?
 But during 21st century, a good amount of research
has been done on what happens when leaders put
followers first.
SL

 Many ways to view SL

 Mainidea is to serve the people you are
responsible for so they benefit from your
actions
Definition
 Greenleaf’s Definition:

“Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one wants
to serve, to serve first. You want to be a leader because you want
to serve them, not because you want to dominate or be ahead.
Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to leadership.

The best test for servant leadership ..…is: Do those served grow as
persons? Do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser,
freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to in turn serve
others because they have been served?

And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they
benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?” what
about those that are hurting?
SL sets the bar high so what may be expected of a leader.

SL - Sometimes treated as a trait, but viewed as a behavior in this

chapter
Spears (2002) version of Greenleaf’s Servant Leadership
10 Characteristics (traits /behaviors) of a Servant Leader
1. Listening – listen to their needs
2. Empathy – understand them
3. Healing – see why they suffer and reduce suffering
4. Awareness – be aware of impact of our behavior
5. Gentle Persuasion – to help people do what best for them
6. Conceptualization – have the big picture of what’s going on
7. Foresight – think of future consequences
8. Stewardship – use all resources in best possible way
9. Commitment to the Growth of People – are they growing
10. Building Community – bringing them together
Other Versions of Servant Leadership
SL Model - Liden
SL behaviors/attributes in the center block (take any or all
of the 10 traits – (follower performance and growth most
important) – someone dominating / narcissistic can’t have
SL traits; but if they are helpful/supportive then SL
becomes a natural process
Conditions that make SL behavior likely – context/culture
(kind of projects/cultural values) – what people expect;
Outcomes (results) – likely results/follower performance –
they become better people/workers (some followers may
take advantage of SL); will better organization; better
society/community with serving others
Model of Servant Leadership
How does it work?

 Itis concerned with putting followers first

and the outcomes that are likely to
emerge.
 Servant leadership works best when leaders
are altruistic and have a strong motivation
to help others.
 Servant
leadership should result in
community and societal change.
Strengths
 Makesaltruism the central component of the
leadership process.
 Focuses on the well-being of others.
 Providesa counterintuitive approach to the use of
influence. Leaders listen to followers and only try to
influence them for things that’ll benefit them.
 Research
has resulted in a sound measure of SL – the
SLQ. Good research
Criticism
 Because servant leadership appears contradictory, it may
be seen as whimsical or moralizing, or not really
“leadership.”
 Researchers are unable to reach consensus on a common
definition or theoretical framework for SL. Not mature
yet.
 It’s
an incomplete theory because it doesn’t include other
important principles of leadership such as directing,
concern for production, etc.
 Not enough research has been done to confirm the
outcomes predicted by the theory – that organizations
that have servant leaders have better outcomes – no
research yet.
Reflection
The way to be a really true and
great leader is to be servant of
others, to serve them and do good
for them. Not by dominating
others.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbItn2ec67A
 Reflection:
 What do you think are some of the skills, and traits of Satya Nadella-CEO of Microsoft?
 Was Steve Balmer, the co-founder of Microsoft, responsible for its failures? How
different were his skills and competencies as compared to Satya Nadella

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yg63EIHWUOs
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdlDvgLe22s
 Reflection:
  
 Where would you place Steph Corey on the credibility matrix?
 The CEO did discuss the issues about the organization in open. Why did this not then
lead to increase in her credibility among the employees?
  
Topic 11 – Adaptive Leadership
David Dunaetz
Description – Key idea
Adaptive Leadership: one of the most modern of all
theories
Focuses on the adaptations / changes workers need
to make in response to changing environments. As
situations/events change around the world, workers
need to adapt.
Stresses the activities of the leader that optimize
the work of followers in the context in which they
find themselves.
Leader is helping the workers do the work in changing
environments / leader focusses on the work that
workers are doing so that goals are accomplished.
Definition
 Definition of adaptive leadership - “The practice of
mobilizing people to tackle tough challenges and
thrive.”
 Adaptive leaders help others do the work by
“mobilizing” ie :
Mobilizing – setting them in motion
Motivating – giving them energy/enthusiasm
Organizing – providing them structure
Orienting – sending them in the right direction
Focusing their attention of what’s important
When is Adaptive Leadership Relevant?
What type of situational challenges are workers facing?
1. Technical or routine problems: Problems that are clearly defined with
known solutions that can be implemented through existing organizational
procedures. We deal with these things on a daily basis.

Example: Some new software at an accounting firm isn’t working. If the

accountant has authority to address the problem (e.g., contact the software
company and have program modified to meet the company’s needs), this is a
technical problem.
=> No need for adaptive leadership here
 When is Adaptive Leadership Relevant?

What type of situational challenges are workers facing?

2. Adaptive Challenges: Problems that are not clearly defined or easy to identify, and which do
not have a clear solution. None has ever faced them before.
They require innovation and learning. Solution doesn’t come easily

Example: A hospital wants to begin a hospice care for terminally ill patients. The patients and
their families will face immense uncertainty about how and when the patients will die. The staff,
patients, and families will face many questions about the dying process, what the loss means, how
to prepare for it and cope with it.
Þ The challenges facing the organization are not clearly defined, nor are the solutions. These
challenges require adaptive leadership. No one knows how to work this.
Þ These challenges require adaptive leadership / innovation and learning.
=> Adaptive challenges (changing everything that people have been doing so far) are value-laden
and stir up people’s emotions. So things can go poorly.
Model – Adaptive Leadership

 Following model shows –

 Situation
changes – technical or routine challenges; only
adaptive or a bit of both
 Adaptive
Leader behavior – will need to use 6 key
elements of adaptive leadership or 6 leader behaviors
 Result – workers doing adaptive work
Model
 6 Adaptive Leader Behaviors
1. Get on the Balcony – get the Big picture – look at
things objectively
Understand the big picture and all that involved in the
situation, not taking the problems personally – keep
aside personal preferences / biases. (Upstairs, looking
down; get a big picture of what’s happening,
challenges faced by people … lot of learning, removing
yourself away from problem so you can see it
objectively not get emotionally involved.)
 6 Adaptive Leader Behaviors
2. Identify Adaptive Challenges
Distinguish between technical or routine and adaptive challenges.
4 Types of Adaptive Challenges
a. A gap between our values and behavior – behavior does not
correspond to values (what we say doesn’t match what we do
eg we are supposed to be good to all but we are not …).
b. Competing commitments/goals (quality vs. cost eg. higher the
quality higher the cost)
c. Elephants in the room (Problems people don’t want to address –
everyone knows the problems but no one wants to address them
because no one knows how to due to egos . …)
d. People avoiding work – people avoid doing what they are
supposed to do
6 Adaptive Leader Behaviors
3. Regulate Distress
Help others recognize the need for change but not be overwhelmed by it.
The leader must. . .
a. Create a “holding environment” (create a safe atmosphere to discuss everything,
people can ask tough questions without being condemned or made fun of)
b. Provide direction, protection, orientation, conflict management, productive norms
c. Regulate his or her own personal distress and the distress of workers, keeping it in
the productive range / not going too fast.

4. Maintain Disciplined Attention

Encouraging people to focus on the tough work they need to do – improvement, or change or
problem solving ….
6 Adaptive Leader Behaviors
5. Give the Work Back to the People
Avoid micro-managing; everyone needs to think – not just the leader needs to
be thinking, but everyone should be thinking; give people freedom to think and
take decisions (less directive and more participatory and supportive). Engage/
involve everyone in decision making / give people freedom to solve problems.

6. Protect Leadership Voices from Below

At times leaders are so concerned about pleasing their bosses that they don’t
listen to those below them. They don’t listen to those below – sometimes even
trample / smash those below. Consider the ideas of people who may later
blame you for the problems and they may be right (groupthink). They might be
at the fringe of organization or might be marginalized, or even deviant in the
group or organization because they think differently but they may have good
ideas.
Model
What is Adaptive Work
Adaptive leadership results in adaptive work.
What adaptive leaders want to see happen.
Adaptive work is the goal leaders want to achieve
A holding environment (safe place) is essential.
Adaptive work grows out of the communication
between leaders and followers but is primarily the
work done by followers.
Communication is enabling the followers to work
better.
Strengths
 Incontrast to some leadership theories, Adaptive Leadership
takes a process approach; leadership is a complex transaction
between leaders and followers.
 Adaptive Leadership is follower centered – cares about
followers. Adaptive leaders mobilize people to engage in
adaptive work.
 Helps followers deal with conflicting values (holding
environment) that emerge in changing work environments.
 Prescribes useful leadership behaviors.
 Introducesthe concept of a “holding environment” as an
important part of the leadership process.
Criticism

Very little empirical research has been

conducted to test the claims of the theory –
its still very new.
Complex processes are difficult to define,
test and measure.
Somewhat abstract and general, makes
simple practical recommendations difficult
to implement.
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHmVaCDq_xU
 (8.25 Minutes)
 What kind of a team design do you think is most useful for this job?
 Would a diverse team be more effective for this organization?
 What would be the norms that this team would adhere to?
Topic 12 Followership
 Followership Defined
 Followership--is a process whereby an individual or individuals
accept the influence of others to accomplish a common goal. As
leadership is influencing others, followership is allowing to be
influenced or accepting the influence of others.
 Culture often focuses on leading rather than following – everyone
wants to be a good leader but not a good follower.
 But followers are just as important, if not more so, than leaders.
 If you have just leaders and no followers, no work will be done.
 Leadership can be viewed as a shared process.
 Examine Typologies of followers focus on various dimensions of
follower traits
 Kelly Typology (1992)
Two dimensions/traits of follower motivation – to understand why followers are following
I. Independent critical thinking (up) (alienated and exemplary followers) Vs Dependent
uncritical thinking (down below) (Passive Vs Conformist)
II. Active Vs Passive
1. Exemplary – active critical independent thinkers – want to find best solutions.
2. Alienated – just think for themselves; get
upset at the incompetent managers
3. Conformist – active, work hard,
do everything they are told to do
4. Passive – only do what they are required to do
5. Pragmatist – shift paths
If leader is narcissistic closed minded, egoistic, they
don’t like active, critical thinkers exemplary followers
Chaleff Typology (1995, 2003, 2008)
 Focuses on helping followers be courageous in difficult situations – usually non
profit organizations; strong moral aspect.
 Two dimensions focusing on mission of organization (eg non profit org):
 Supporting the leader when leader is right.
 Challenging the leader when leader is wrong
Chaleff Typology (1995, 2003, 2008)
 Partner – best type (High support and high challenge) – gives high support when
leader is right but also challenges when the leader is wrong. Partner wants to
accomplish the task in the best possible moral way.
 Implementer –(high support but low challenge) – good if the leader is doing
right but not as good if the leader is on the wrong.
 Individualist – not really supportive of the leader but always challenges leader
 Resource – Don’t support and don’t challenge
If leader is narcissistic closed minded, egoistic, “Partners” will be the first to be
fired.
 Kellerman Typology (2008)
 Useful for understanding importance of followers in politics and social media
 One dimension: Engagement (from low to high levels); Eg. Social media -
YouTube academic video channel
Isolate – watch and move along; Bystander - might subscribe, bit more engaged;
Participant – Actually interact, click like, write comments; Participants – interact,
subscribe, click like or write comments; Activists – challenge, suggest, smaller
number; Diehard – 100% committed to the series. Most are isolates or
bystanders – don’t engage.
Singer’s “diehard” category may be many, many more.
Followership Theory (Mary Uhl-Bien, 2014)
Figure 12.2 Elements of Followership
(From Uhl-Bien’s article, more complete than in book)
 Followership Theory (Mary Uhl-Bien, 2014)
Figure 12.6 Reversing the Lens
 Focusing on how followers affect leaders and organizational outcomes
Followership Theory (Mary Uhl-Bien, 2014)

 Reversing the lens – focus on followership

 Focuseson how followers (traits and
behaviors) affect leaders(and leader
perceptions and behavior) – leading to
followership outcomes.
The Leadership Co-Created Process
Combines leader- and follower-
centered approaches
Followership Theory (Mary Uhl-Bien, 2014)

 Combine reversing the lens with typical leadership theories –

 Interactionof leading and following behaviors which produces

co-created process called leadership which then leads to
outcomes.
Strengths

 Recognizes followership as a central part of

the leadership process (co-created with
leaders)
 A new way to think about leadership,
focusing on followers
 Providesbasic guidelines for what a follower
should do
Criticism

Based on anecdotal observations but

not methodical research.
Leader-centric view of leadership may
be too ingrained for followership to gain
importance. As everyone wants to
study leadership and no one wants to
study followership.
Activity
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1X11aLACso

 (28.08 Minutes)
 What kind of a leader-directive, coaching, or supportive do you think is Gordon Ramsey?
 Are directive leaders more effective for this situation?
 Is chef Ramsey failing to set the expectations right for his employees? How clear are the task roles?
  
 What is the effect of his management style on his staff?
  
 Are task oriented leaders micro-managers?
  
 If a leader is task oriented, does it lead to lack of trust between the leader and the employees?
 What is the effect of chef Ramsey’s leadership style on the work environment?
  
 If the workers were not to be working for Ramsey, and Ramsey is only acting as a consultant (helping
improve things in the kitchen), would his leadership style be just as effective?
Topic 13 Leadership Ethics
 Leadership and Ethics - Looking at
what is the right thing to do
Definition and Theory
 Ethics
 The study of morally right behaviors and character; Broad – includes all
characters, values, morals; could be subjective, varying
 Ethical
dilema – usually choosing between two rights rather than
between a right and a wrong.
 Isconcerned with the kinds of values and morals an individual, a
culture, or a society believes is appropriate; subjective
 Sincethe 1960s, the ethical failures of leaders have become more and
more apparent.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
 Describes how individuals take more and more factors into consideration as
they get older and more mature – 6 stages (stage 1 as a kid and stage 2 later
when you are more mature; stages 5, 6 if you very concerned morally)
 Does not provide any guidelines for making ethical decisions.
 Any behavior can be justified as ethical using these factors.
 Highly criticized
 Doesn’t help you
understand right
from wrong;
emphasizes on
relativism.
Ethical Theories
 Two Broad Domains of theories – conduct and character: Theories about
leaders’ conduct (behavior) and about leaders’ character (how you
should live your life)
 Teleological + deontological = conduct
Ethical Theories
 Teleological Theories - looking at the end;
consequences/outcomes
 Vertical axis – self-interest
 Horizontal – interest of others
 Ethical egoism – everyone do what’s
best for themselves; no need to be
Concerned for others.
 Utilitarianism – try to maximize good for
Maximum people; very difficult
 Altruism – best approach – especially
Concerned for others; selflessness
 Ethical Theories
Deontological Theories – focus on duties
 1. Codes of ethics – professional code of ethics for professionals eg
psychologists, therapists; doctors.

 2. Laws – follow legal code of conduct

 3. General ethical principles - general ethics about honesty, being

faithful, sincere …
 Character
 Character or Virtue-based Theories: Focus on a leader’s character /
habitual responses / how they should be
Rather than emphasizing what to do in specific situations,
emphasizes how people should be (their habitual responses to
situations)
Enables moral development through training.
Examples of virtues that can be developed:
Courage, honesty, fairness, justice, integrity, humility
Love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness,
gentleness, self-control
 The Dark Side of Leadership – The Toxic Triangle
 Sometimes leadership can go really bad and inflict evil – eg. some
leaderships during world war II – not just a person, but also many factors
 Many factors came together – Toxic Triangle – leader, followers, situation
 We must ensure that these factors don’t come into play at any level –
national, international, organizational or department level.
3 factors – Destructive leaders – charisma and personal power could be good
but narcissism (selfish, dishonesty…), other negative qualities, can be very
bad.
 Susceptible
followers – eg. colluders – are active – ambitious people may
team up with other evil people’ conformers; conformers – just follow
 Conducive environment – systemic factors/systemic failures; no checks and
balance in institutions; environment which allows the above 2 to thrive
The Dark Side of Leadership – The Toxic Triangle
5 Principles of Ethical Leadership – By Northouse
Ethics--is central to leadership because of
 Leadership being a process of influence
 The need to engage followers to accomplish mutually beneficial goals
 The impact leaders have on establishing the organization’s values is very
important
5 Principles of Ethical Leadership
 RESPECT - Treating everyone as important, respecting all;
Never insulting, putting others down, hurting them because
people are infinitely valuable
 SERVE - Use power to benefit others, not be a source of pain
 JUSTICE- Show gestures to ensure there is no favoritism,
prejudice, bitterness, treat all fairly
 HONESTY - No deception, cheating …
 UNITE - Build community – work together
Strength

 Provides direction on how to think about

ethical leadership and how to practice it
 Reminds us that leadership is a moral
phenomenon and that ethics should be
considered as integral to the broader
domain of leadership
 Highlights principles and virtues that are
important in ethical leadership
development
Criticisms
 Lacks a strong body of traditional research findings to
substantiate the theoretical foundations.
 Conceptual confusion regarding the concept of ethics
makes ethics hard to measure.
 Strongly influenced by personal opinion and worldview.
Its all relative at times.
Topic 14 Team Leadership –
By Susan Cogler Hill
Defining Elements of a Team / What
makes up a team?
A group of people formed for accomplishing a common
goal.
 Interdependence: The success of individuals depends
on the success of the team. Success of everyone
depends on the success of the team.
 Commitment to work together – collaborate,
coordinate and communicate regularly
 Accountable as a unit in a larger organizational context
(like a mini-organization within a larger organization).
Team Leadership Perspective
Research on Teams:

 Team success is highly dependent on leadership.

 The leadership functions can be performed by a formal leader or

leadership shared by team members (MAYBE THERE’S NO FORMAL
LEADER).
 Distributed (shared) leadership (individual team members can serve as
leaders)
 Team leadership capacity – what abilities and capacities do the
members bring to the team
Kogler Hill’s Team Leadership Model
This model provides the leader or a team member
with a mental road map to help the team better -
Diagnose team problems, and
Take appropriate action to correct team problems

3 steps –
Monitor situation
Take leadership action (internal or external)
Evaluate Performance
Kogler Hill’s Model for Team Leadership
Kogler Hill’s Team Leadership Model

Monitor
Situation
until Action is
Necessary

Evaluate
Team Take
Performance Leadership
and Action
Development
Leadership Decision 1:
When Should I (formal leader or a member intervene)?
If any of these are missing, intervention is appropriate.
Leadership Decision 1: When Should I intervene
(formal leader or a member intervene)? If any of
these are missing, intervention is appropriate.
 Team leader should be encouraging by reminding about the good
goal.
 Procedures should focus on results.
 Very important to have competent members / not slow and
dragging incompetent ones
 Everyone should get behind one goal
 Collaborate and work together to achieve goal
 No mediocre work / excellent standards
 People not on the team (senior management) should give them
recognition
 Transformational type leaders – leaders with high morals,
impacting members
Other Factors

 Personality
of the leader – some leaders may not
want to share leadership because they feel
threatened.
Leadership Decision 2: When it’s time to
intervene, should I intervene internally or
externally?
 Leadermust figure out what type of intervention is
necessary:
 Internal Leadership Actions, if:
Conflict between team members

Team goals unclear

 External Leadership Actions, if:

Organization not providing proper support to team
Leadership Decision 3 . . .
Should I Intervene to Meet Task or Relational Needs?

Task Needs – sometimes team needs to focus on tasks

 Getting job done
 Making decisions
 Solving problems
 Adapting to change
 Making plans
 Achieving goals

Relational Needs – other times, team needs to focus on relationships

 Developing positive climate
 Solving interpersonal problems
 Satisfying members’ needs
 Developing cohesion
 Leadership Action
Internal Leadership Actions
External Leadership Actions –
level 1

Environment around the team

Task Relational • Networking to gain access to resources
• Goal focusing – helping • Coaching • Advocating for resources
people stay focused /encouraging • Negotiating support from others
•Structuring for results – • Collaborating / • Buffering – protecting members from
holding people bringing them outside pressures
accountable together • Assessing role of team
• Facilitating decision • Managing conflict • Sharing information with others outside
making – more effective • Building commitment so they can better support the team
meetings • Satisfying needs
• Training • Modeling principles
•Maintaining standards / of integrity and ethics
clarifying standards
Kogler Hill’s Model for Team Leadership
Kogler Hill’s Team Leadership Model
 Each box is a decision-making unit
 Linesshould have arrows pointing down and curved line should point
down.
 We need to have leadership decisions that lead to team effectiveness
 Leaderships decisions – to monitor; or take action (external or
internal or task / relational intervention)
 Internal – Task/Relational
 External – environmental
 Alltogether will lead to team effectiveness (when the team is being
dysfunctional – it’s time to take action whether you are the leader or
member – external or internal / task or relational)
 Group Dynamics
Leader emergence is partly a function of group size

As size increases, cliques (in-groups) are more likely to develop

 Cliques: Subgroups of individuals who often share the same goals, values, and
expectations

Affects a leader’s behavioral style

• Leaders with a large span of control tend to be more directive, spend less time
with individual subordinates, and use impersonal approaches when influencing
followers
• Leaders with a small span of control tend to show more consideration and use
personal approaches when influencing followers

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 Group Cohesion
Sum of the forces that attract members to a group, provide resistance to
leaving it, and motivate them to be active in it
 Highly cohesive groups interact with and influence each other more than less
cohesive groups do
• Have lower absenteeism and lower turnover, which can contribute to higher group
performance
• Greater cohesiveness does not always lead to higher performance
• May sometimes develop goals contrary to the larger organization’s goals

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 Group Cohesion
Disadvantages of highly cohesive groups
 Over-bounding: Tendency to erect what amounts to fences or boundaries
between themselves and others (in-groups, mindguards)
 Groupthink: People in highly cohesive groups often become more concerned with
striving for unanimity than objectively appraising different courses of action
 Ollieism: Occurs when illegal actions are taken by overly zealous and loyal
subordinates who believe that what they are doing will please their leaders

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 Limitations to the Benefits of Size
There may be shifting/changing returns, on a per-capita basis, as group size
increases
Social loafing / free riding / deindividuation: Phenomenon of reduced effort
by people when they are not individually accountable for their work

 Displacement or diffusion of responsibility: Violating personal moral

standards by attributing responsibility to others
 Diffusion of responsibility: Excusing one’s own reprehensible behavior
because others are behaving in the same way

Social facilitation: People increasing their level of work due to the presence
of others

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 Gersick’s Punctuated Equilibrium Model
Teams do not necessarily jump right in and get to work
 Spend the initial months trying out various ideas and strategies
 Experience the equivalent of a midlife crisis midway into the project

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 Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development/Team Building
 Forming: Characterized by polite conversation, the gathering of superficial
information about fellow members, and low trust
 Storming: Marked by intragroup conflict and status differentiation as
remaining contenders struggle to build alliances and fulfill the group’s
leadership role
 Norming: Characterized by the clear emergence of a leader and the
development of group norms and cohesiveness
 Performing: In this stage, group members play functional, interdependent
roles that are focused on the performance of group tasks

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5 Stage model in Team building
(Tuckman)

 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
 Adjourning (disband)
5 Stage model in Team building

 Forming stage – initial stages; getting to know each other; high stress; anxiety; important to
establish ground rules; important to prepare a charter (regulatory device) – formal agreement of
purpose, rules, roles, code of conduct / expectation / behavior eg. Expectations about
attending meetings; charter can reduce misunderstandings; at this stage, the leader’s role is
important in directing work effort.
 Storming stage – testing each other’s boundaries; focus might be on self at the expense of
others; challenges arise; conflicts about goal and contributions of each member; disagreements
and conflicts must be resolved at this stage; leader is challenged; Leadership addresses conflict,
team’s purpose and ground rules; team’s pecking order / hierarchy is established.
5 Stage model in Team building
 Norming stage – Trust and respect grows; focus shifts to shared goals; Team members establish
relationships and a cohesive unit; norms for rules / acceptable behavior are established. Team members
look at differences in a more positive way and look at ways to enhance team performance; Leadership
style at this stage may be more democratic.

 Performing stage – High level of trust, respect and motivation; little friction; shift from personal
relationships to team goals; all team members contribute towards success; celebrate success; social
facilitation; leader is now a facilitator.

 Adjourning stage (sometimes) – temporary teams adjourn or maybe disbanded once the project is over;
farewell may be arranged.

Each of these stages are a part of a spectrum. Teams may swap between stages over time. If you are
assigned a team, as a manager it is important that you are able to identify the stage your team is in to
maximize team effectiveness.

If storming continues for too long, a team may be adjourned sooner.

5 Stage model in Team building
(Tuckman)
 Group Roles
Sets of expected behaviors associated with particular jobs or positions

Can be categorized in terms of task and relationship functions

 Task role: Deals with getting a task done
 Relationship role: Deals with supporting relationships within a work group

Problems that can impede group performance

 Dysfunctional roles – don’t really have a clear contribution
 Role conflict – torn between 2 conflicting roles
 Role ambiguity – not clear what one is expected to do

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 Role Conflict
Receiving contradictory messages about expected behavior

Ways in which role conflict can occur

 Intra-sender role conflict: Same person sends mixed signals (“I need this
completed immediately and flawlessly”)
 Inter-sender role conflict: Receiving inconsistent signals from several others
about expected behavior (some colleagues tell me I can observe flexible work
hours as long as I complete the task, while others say I have to report from 9 am
to 5 pm no matter what)
 Inter-role conflict: Inability to perform one’s roles as well as one would like (“I
know I can do much better but no one lets me complete my work, they keep
giving me their jobs to do”)
 Person-role conflict: Violation of a person’s values by role expectations (“I’m
very particular about promising my people only what I can actually deliver but
my party leader keeping pressurizing me to make false, unachievable promises”).

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Topic 15 – Gender and Leadership
Gender and Leadership Approach
Description
Current research primary questions
 Do men and women lead differently?
 Are men leaders more effective than women
leaders?
 Why are women underrepresented in elite
leadership roles? 
 The Glass Ceiling Turned Labyrinth

 Glass Ceiling
 Labyrinth or maze – some women do make it to top leadership;
why, how and what route do they take?

Women
 Currently outnumber men in higher education--57% of bachelor’s
degrees, 60% of master’s degrees, more than 50% of doctorates,
nearly half of professional degrees.
Make up less than half of the U.S. labor force (47%) but represent
51% of the population.
Still are underrepresented in upper leadership of corporations
and political systems (the gender gap).
Three types of explanations
 Understanding the Labyrinth
 Human Capital –
 Education - more and more women are gaining education; but many tend not to major in technical
field – math, science, engineering
 Work experience – family path – take time off; social mobility
 Developmental opportunities – travelling etc can be an issue
 Work – home – role conflict – nurturing / housework roles
 During the pandemic – WFH – more women had to take leave from work because children didn’t
attend school and women undertook the additional responsibility of childcare.
 Prejudice –
 Gender stereotypes
 biased perceptions and evaluations
 Gender differences –
 Style differences
 Commitment / motivation
 Women tend not to self-promote or take on more responsibilities
 Women don’t negotiate
Understanding the Labyrinth
Understanding the Labyrinth

 Gendered expectations (gender role expectations)

explain numerous findings:
 Women facing cross-pressures to be tough but not
too “tough”
 Greater difficulty for women to be viewed as
effective in top leadership roles
 Penalties for women who violate gender stereotypes
Strengths

 Understanding the research in gender and leadership

can help promote more women into upper layers of
leadership.
 Women are more likely to use democratic /
participative styles of leadership.
 Research on gender and leadership is productive in
both dispelling myths about the gender gap and
shining a light on aspects of the gender barriers that
are difficult to see.
Criticisms
 The role of biological differences is often ignored in
leadership studies.
 Unanswered questions
 Is it appropriate to consider domestic leadership (child
raising, etc.) less important than organizational leadership?
 Is it realistic to expect men and women to be equally
concerned about domestic duties (e.g., housework, buying
clothing for children, car maintenance)?
Activity

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VYfNVbSZODI
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpK9wStC8EM
 Reflection:
 Comment on the skills of Steph Corey as the CEO of the
organization.
Topic 16 – Culture and
Leadership PS
Culture and Leadership

What is Culture?

“The learned (not in-born) beliefs, values,

attitudes, rules, norms, symbols, and traditions
that are common (shared) to a group of people. It
includes things we use, do and believe in. It is a
design for living – ethnocentrism; cultural
relativism; culture shock; socialization.”
Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE
Study (House, et al. 1991) – 10 categories of countries
Some of the 9 Cultural Dimensions from GLOBE ( measures beliefs and
values of managers in 62 countries placed under 10 categories)
Uncertainty Avoidance
 Relyingon established social norms, rituals, and procedures to avoid uncertainty
 High:Germanic Europe (relying on established procedures; low flexibility and very rigid)
 Low: Latin America (more flexibility with norms, rituals and procedures)

Power Distance
 Expecting and agreeing that power should not be shared unequally; those above us should
be able to tell us everything we should do (vertical culture)
 High: China
 Low: Nordic Europe (everyone has a say in whatever goes on – horizontal culture)

In-Group Collectivism: (in-groups are grps we identify with & believe we belong
to)
 Expressing pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families
 High: Confucian Asia / East Asia
 Low: Anglo countries (viewed as not very popular)
 Some of the 9 Cultural Dimensions from GLOBE

Gender Egalitarianism:
 Minimizing gender role differences
 High: Nordic Europe
 Low: Middle East / Asia

Performance Orientation:
• Encouraging and rewarding people for improved performance and excellence.
• High: Anglo-American countries – very achievement oriented
• Low: Latin America – more important might be loyalty/building trust…; achievement may not
be as important.

Humane Orientation:
• Encouraging and rewarding people for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to
others
• High: Sub-Saharan Africa
• Low: Latin Europe
Hofstede’s Cultural Framework Model (national level)

 Power Distance Index (PDI): extent to which a culture tolerates inequality; measures the level of
acceptance of authority naturally present in a culture. Less powerful members must accept
leadership just as more powerful individuals must bear the responsibility of leading; strong sense of
position / status; Low PDI score – flatter organization. People in low power distance cultures are
more likely to question authority and also often believe that they have greater control over their
lives. Whereas people from high power distance cultures are raised to believe that their social class
determines their course of life.
 Individualism (IDV) vs. collectivism: Some cultures value performance of individuals while others
value team effort; it denotes the way in which cultures tend towards group work to accomplish
tasks versus individual and more independent contributions. This has financial implications for
rewards at work – individual bonus or profit sharing for bigger groups. Groups rewards for teams vs
individual rewards for teams – depending on collectivistic or individualistic cultures – impact of
culture.
 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI): Attitude towards risk-taking; Low level of anxiety in uncertain
situations indicates more risk taking ability, working outside of rules, willingness to embrace change
and more entrepreneurial culture. High level of Uncertainty Avoidance would take less risk …
Hofstede’s Cultural Framework
Model (national level)
Cultural Intelligence and Cultural Framework
 Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS): Difference in decision making style
between women and men; this identifies specific gender roles and
measures the ways in which cultures reflect these roles. This is a
highly debatable measurement because it innately stereotypes.
 Long-Term Orientation (LTO): Perspective on time horizons when
making decisions; long term Vs short term performance and its
implications on investment decisions.
 Indulgence vs. restraint: Societies that encourage enjoying life and
having fun are more into indulgence; Vs those that are more restraint
suppress and regulate desires by strict social norms. This is relevant
to consumption, self-control, and frugality.
Hofstede’s Cultural Indicators
Leadership Behavior & Culture Clusters
 GLOBE research identified six global leadership behaviors that are
considered important to various degrees in various cultures.

 Charismatic/value-based – motivating members

(transformational leadership)
 Team-oriented (more valued in collectivistic cultures)
 Participative or democratic

 Humane-oriented

 Autonomous – doing ones own thing

 Self- and group- protective

Culture Clusters and desired Leadership Behavior - Anglo
Culture Clusters and desired Leadership Behavior
- Anglo
 Anglo culture (Canada, UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand)-
High on charismatic value, participative leadership, humane-
oriented leadership;
Medium on Team –oriented and autonomous leadership
Low on self-protective leadership
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Culture Clusters and desired Leadership – Latin
America
In contrast, in East Asia –
Charismatic / value-based leadership and team-oriented
leadership and self protective leadership is viewed as very
high.
Participative and humane-oriented leadership is viewed as
medium
Autonomous or doing ones own thing – low
Culture Clusters and desired Leadership – East Asia
Culture Clusters and desired Leadership – East Asia
 Confucian Asia / East Asia
Self-protective leadership (where the leaders is regarded as
protector) and team leadership is very high
Human-oriented / charismatic/value-based / Autonomous
leadership is medium
Participative / democratic leadership (people lower in hierarchy can
express views) is very low