Leadership
• Leadership and managership are two synonymous terms” is an
instructions and accept their guidance. A person can be a leader by
virtue of all qualities in him.
Definition
• Koontz and O’Donnell, “Leadership is the process of
influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the
achievement of group goals.”
• Chester I. Bernard, “Leadership refers to the quality of the
behaviour of the individual whereby they guide people on
their activities in organised work.”
• Keith Davis, “Leadership is the process of encouraging and
helping others to work enthusiastically towards their
objectives. Leadership must extract cooperation and
willingness of the individuals and groups to attain the
organisational objectives.”
• George R. Terry, “Leadership is a relationship in which one
person influences others to work together willingly on related
tasks to attain what the leader desires.”
incorrect statement. Leadership doesn’t require any managerial
position to act as a leader. On the other hand, a manager can be a true
manager only if he has got the traits of leader in him. By virtue of
his/her position, manager has to provide leadership to his group.
• A manager has to perform all five functions to achieve goals,
i.e., Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling. Leadership
is a part of these functions.
• Leadership as a general term is not related to managership. A person
can be a leader by virtue of qualities in him. For example: leader of a
club, class, welfare association, social organization, etc. Therefore, it is
true to say that, “All managers are leaders, but all leaders are not
managers.”
• A leader is one who influences the behaviour and work of others in
group efforts towards achievement of specified goals in a given
situation. On the other hand, manager can be a true manager only if he
has got traits of leader in him. Manager at all levels are expected to be
the leaders of work groups so that subordinates willingly carry
‘BE’, ‘KNOW’ and ‘Do’ Concept of Leadership
• BE a professional. Examples – Be loyal to the organization, perform selfless
service, and take personal responsibility.
• BE a professional who possess good character traits. Examples – Honesty,
competence, candour, commitment, integrity, courage, straightforwardness,
imagination.
• KNOW the four elements of leadership – follower, leader, communication, and
situation.
• KNOW yourself. Examples – strengths and weakness of your character,
knowledge, and skills.
• KNOW human nature. Examples – Human needs, emotions, and how people
respond to stress.
• KNOW your job. Examples – be proficient and be able to train others in their tasks.
• KNOW your organization. Examples – where to go for help its climate and culture,
who the unofficial leaders are.
• DO provide direction. Examples – goal setting, problem solving, decision making,
planning.
• DO implement. Examples – communicating, coordinating, supervising, evaluating.
• DO motivate. Examples – develop moral and spirit in the organization, train, coach,
counsel.
 Characteristics: of Leaders
1. There must be Followers:
A leadership cannot exist without followers. If a leader does
not have followers, he cannot exercise his authority.
Leadership exists both in formal and informal organisations.
2. Working Relationship between Leader and Followers:There
must be a working relationship between the leader and his
followers. It means that the leader should present himself in a
place where the work is actually going on.
3. Personal Quality:
The character and behaviour of a man influence the works of
others.
4. Reciprocal Relationship:
Leadership kindles a reciprocal relationship between the leader
and his followers. A leader can influence his followers and, in
turn, the followers can influence the leader. The willingness of
both the leader and the followers is responsible for the
influence and no enforcement is adopted.
Characteristics: of Leaders cont...
5. Community of Interests :There must be community of interests between
the leader and his followers. A leader has his own objectives. The
followers have their own objectives
6. Guidance:
A leader guides his followers to achieve the goals of the organisation.
A leader should take steps to motivate his followers for this purpose.
7. Related to a Particular Situation:
Leadership is applicable to a particular situation at a given point of time.
It varies from time to time.
8. Shared Function: Leadership is a shared function. A leader is also working
along with his followers to achieve the objectives of the organisation.
Besides, the leader shares his experience, ideas and views with his
followers.
9. Power Relationship: A leader has powers to exercise over his followers.
The leader derives these powers from the organisation hierarchy,
superior know-ledge, experience and the like.

Sanction Manager has command over A leader has command over

Basis Manager
Origin A person becomes a manager
by virtue of his position
Formal Rights Manager has got formal right in
an organization because of his
status
Followers The subordinates are the
followers of manager
Necessity A manager is very essential to a
concern.
Role Continuation A manager can continue in
office till he performs his duty
satisfactorily in congruence
with organizational goal.
Leadership
A person becomes a leader on
the basis of his personal
qualities.
Rights are not available to a
leader
The group of employees whom
the leaders lead are followers
A leader is required to create
cordial relationship between
person working in and for
organization.
A leader can maintain his
position only through the
wishes of the follower.
allocation and distribution of different sanctions related to
sanctions. task record. These sanctions are
essentially of informal nature.
Leadership Styles
A leader is a person who influences a group of people
towards the achievement of a goal while leadership is the
art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving
a common goal. Different leadership styles will result in
different impact to organization. The leader has to choose
the most effective approach of leadership style depending
on situation because leadership style is crucial for a team
success.
• One of the earliest frameworks on leadership styles was
proposed by a team of researchers led by
 psychologist Kurt Lewin in the 1930s. Lewin's leadership
styles fall into three categories:1. Authoritative (or
autocratic leadership) 2. Participative (or a democratic
leader) 3. Delegative (or a laissez faire leader)
Leadership Styles
Since then, various other styles of leadership have been
proposed, including but not limited to:
1. Transactional Leadership
2. Autocratic Leadership
3. Transformational Leadership
4. Servant Leadership
5. Charismatic Leadership
6. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership
receiving any explanations. The motivation environment is
produced by creating a structured set of rewards and punishments.
3. Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is a leadership style that is defined as
leadership that creates valuable and positive change in the followers. A
transformational leader focuses on “transforming” others to help each
other, to look out for each other, to be encouraging and harmonious, and
to look out for the organization as a whole. In this leadership, the leader
enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his follower group.
A person with this leadership style is a true leader who inspires his or her
team with a shared vision of the future. Transformational leaders are
highly visible, and spend a lot of time communicating.
4. Servant Leadership
This term, coined by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who
is often not formally recognized as such. When someone, at any level
within an organization, leads simply by virtue of meeting the needs of his
or her team, he or she is described as a “servant leader”. Servant
Leadership’s focus was on the leader as a servant, with his or her key role
being in developing, enabling and supporting team members, helping
them fully develop their potential and deliver their best. In many ways,
7. Laissez-Faire Leadership
8. Bureaucratic Leadership
1. Transactional Leadership:- This style of leadership starts with the
premise that team members agree to obey their leader totally when
they take a job on. The “transaction” is usually that the organization
pays the team members, in return for their effort and compliance.
As such, the leader has the right to “punish” team members if their
work doesn’t meet the pre-determined standard. Team members
can do little to improve their job satisfaction under transactional
leadership. Alternatively a transactional leader could practice
“management by exception”, whereby, rather than rewarding
better work, he or she would take corrective action if the required
standards were not met.
2. Autocratic Leadership:-Autocratic leadership style is often
considered the classical approach. It is one in which the manager
retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible.
The manager does not consult employees, nor are they allowed to
give any input. Employees are expected to obey orders without
servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, as the whole team
tends to be involved in decision-making.
5. Charismatic leadership is a type of leadership that combines charm,
interpersonal connection, and persuasiveness to motivate others.
• Charismatic leaders can motivate and inspire their teams toward a greater
goal. They do this by tapping into their team members’ emotions, creating a
sense of trust, passion, and purpose greater than themselves
• Charismatic leadership differentiates from other leadership styles, like
laissez-faire or autocratic, by focusing more on the interpersonal
relationship and how the leader interacts with the people whom they lead.
• Many leaders are in some sense charismatic. People want to follow the
leader as a person, in one way or another, not just for the business goal
they represent.
• However, charismatic leadership relies on multiple attributes of charisma to
elicit desired behaviours.
Here are eight charismatic leadership characteristics to consider:
1. Communication
2. Empathy
3. Confidence
4. Humility
5. Self-awareness
6. Maturity
8. Passion
6. Democratic Leadership or Participative Leadership
Although a democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other
members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only
increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team members in what’s going
on, but it also helps to develop people’s skills. Employees and team members feel in
control of their own destiny, and so are motivated to work hard by more than just a
financial reward
7. Laissez-Faire Leadership
The laissez-faire leadership style is also known as the “hands-off ¨ style. It is one in
which the manager provides little or no direction and gives employees as much
freedom as possible. All authority or power is given to the employees and they must
determine goals, make decisions, and resolve problems on their own.
8. Bureaucratic Leadership
This is style of leadership that emphasizes procedures and historical methods
regardless of their usefulness in changing environments. Bureaucratic leaders attempt
to solve problems by adding layers of control, and their power comes from controlling
the flow of information. Bureaucratic leaders work “by the book”, ensuring that their
staff follow procedures exactly. This is a very appropriate style for work involving
cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader
effectiveness.
Trait Theory of Leadership: cont...
Among the core traits identified are:
• Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition,
energy and initiative
• Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach
shared goals
• Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open
• Self-confidence: Belief in one’s self, ideas, and ability
• Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong
analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled
• Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical
matters
• Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe
psychological disorders.
• Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility
serious safety risks such as working with machinery, with toxic substances, at heights
or where large sums of money are involved such as cash-handling.
Theories of Leadership
Trait Theory of Leadership:-
The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics
of many leaders - both successful and unsuccessful - and is
used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting lists
of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to
assess their likelihood of success or failure.
Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify
physiological (appearance, height, and weight),
demographic
(age, education and socioeconomic background),
personality, self-confidence, and aggressiveness),
intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and
knowledge), taskrelated (achievement drive, initiative, and
persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and
Trait Theory of Leadership contd…
Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory
•
•
It is naturally pleasing theory.
It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.
• It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be
assessed.
• It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the
leadership process.
Limitations of The Trait Theory
• There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as
a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader
• The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of
successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These
descriptions are simply generalities.
• There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an
effective leader
• The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to
effective leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For
example, a minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks
efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not
the requirements to be an effective leader.
 • The theory is very complex
Trait Theory of Leadership contd…
Implications of Trait Theory
• The trait theory gives constructive information about leadership. It
can be applied by people at all levels in all types of organizations.
• Managers can utilize the information from the theory to evaluate
their position in the organization and to assess how their position
can be made stronger in the organization. They can get an in-depth
understanding of their identity and the way they will affect others
in the organization. This theory makes the manager aware of their
strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of
how they can develop their leadership qualities.
2.Great Man Theory of Leadership:- Much of the work on
this theory was done in the 19th century and is often linked
to the work of the historian Thomas Carlyle who commented
on the great men or heroes of the history saying that “the
• The leaders are born and not made and posses certain
traits which were inherited
• Great leaders can arise when there is a great need.
Implication-
• The theory implies that those in power deserve to be
there because of their special endowment.
Furthermore, the theory contends that these traits
remain stable over time and across different groups.
Thus, it suggests that all great leaders share these
characteristic regardless of when and where they lived
or the precise role in the history they fulfilled.
3. Decision Theory: Vrooms AND Yettons Leader
Participation Model
Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton, in 1973, developed the normative decision
theory. Arthur Jago later collaborated in 1988 to revise the normative decision
model.
history of the world is but the biography of great men”.
According to him, a leader is the one gifted with unique
qualities that capture the imagination of the masses.
• Earlier leadership was considered as a quality associated
mostly with the males, and therefore the theory was named
as the great man theory. But later with the emergence of
many great women leaders as well, the theory was recognized
as the Great Person Theory.
• The great man theory of leadership states that some people
are born with the necessary attributes that set them apart
from others and that these traits are responsible for their
assuming positions of power and authority. A leader is a hero
who accomplishes goals against all odds for his followers.
Great Man Theory of Leadership cont...
Assumptions
• It helps to know how much employee involvement is necessary to make
decisions. Unlike other leadership theories, the normative decision theory
defines five different decision styles.
• Vroom and Yetton specify decision effectiveness depending on two
intervening variables:
1. Decision quality: Decision quality is the aspect that affects group
performance. However, group performance isn’t moderated by the
effects of decision acceptance.
2. Decision acceptance by followers: It is the degree of followers’
commitment to decisions.
Decision quality and decision acceptance gets affected due to the following
variables-
• Follower participation while making decisions.
• The behaviour used by the leader when making decisions.
• The situation is also a key factor for decision quality and decision acceptance.
 Normative Decision Theory/ Vrooms AND
Yettons Leader Participation Model
Decision Theory: Vrooms AND Yettons Leader
Participation Model cont…
1. Autocratic Type 1 (AI)Leader makes own decision using information that is
readily available to him or her at the time. This type is completely autocratic.
2. Autocratic Type 2 (AII)Leader collects required information from followers, then
makes decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to
followers. Here, followers' involvement is just providing information.
3. Consultative Type 1 (CI)Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually
and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers
do not meet each other and the leader’s decision may or may not reflect his
followers' influence. So, here followers' involvement is at the level of providing
alternatives individually.
4. Consultative Type 2 (CII)Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group
and seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers
meet each other, and through discussions they understand other alternatives.
But the leader’s decision may or may not reflect the followers' influence.
5. Group-based Type 2 (GII)Leader discuss problem and situation with followers as
a group and seeks their ideas and suggestions through brainstorming. Leader
accepts any decision and does not try to force his or her idea. Decision accepted
by the group is the final one.
The model identifies five different styles based on the
situation and level of involvement.
Vroom, Yetton, and Jago, in 1988, revised the model. They
concluded the revised model by proposing seven basic questions on
decision quality, commitment, problem information and decision
acceptance, with which leaders can determine level of followers
involvement in decision. The proposed questions of the revised
model are as follows:
1. Is there a quality requirement? Is the nature of the solution critical?
Are there technical or rational grounds for selecting among possible
solutions?
2. Do I have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?
3. Is the problem structured? Are the alternative courses of action and
methods for their evaluation known?
4. Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates critical to its
implementation?
5. If I were to make the decision by myself, is it reasonably certain that
it would be accepted by my subordinates?
6. Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be obtained in
solving this problem?
7. Is conflict among subordinates likely in obtaining the preferred
solution?
Vroom, Yetton, and Jago, revised the model.
The new model suggests guidelines like•
Time restraints
• Follower knowledge
• The geographical dispersion of followers.
Criticism:
• Automation of the model process is weak, and it lacks
the personal factors of the leader.
• The questions used in the model may not be precise
enough to reach ideal use.
• The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model may not work for a
large team or group of people.
that the best predictor of leadership success is
viewing how a leader acts.
a) Ohio State studies-The most comprehensive and
Behavioral theory cont....
a) Ohio State studies-The most comprehensive and
replicated of the behavioural theories resulted from
research of Ohio State studies. It categorized
leadership into two dimensions
Initiating structure-The extent to which a leader is
likely to define or structure his/her role and those of
subordinates in the search for goal attainment.
Consideration-The extent to which a leader a leader
is likely to have job relationships characterized by
mutual trust ,respect for subordinates ideas and
regard for their feeling.
• The model ignores a leader’s orientation preference. It
only considers the skills and willingness of followers.
4.Behavioral theory.
The behavioural leadership theory focuses on
how leaders behave, and assumes that these
traits can be copied by other leaders.
Sometimes called the style theory, it suggests
that leaders aren’t born successful, but can be
created based on learnable behavior.
Behavioral theories of leadership focus heavily
on the actions of a leader—this theory suggests
Behavioral theory cont....
replicated of the behavioural theories resulted from
research of Ohio State studies. It categorized
leadership into two dimensions
Initiating structure-The extent to which a leader is
likely to define or structure his/her role and those of
subordinates in the search for goal attainment.
Consideration-The extent to which a leader a leader
is likely to have job relationships characterized by
mutual trust ,respect for subordinates ideas and
regard for their feeling.
Behavioural theory cont....
b) Michigan Studies – Behavioural Leadership Model
• As per Michigan Studies, the leadership was compared with a
specific set of groups that were already marked as ineffective or
effective. A continuum was proposed featuring an
employeeoriented approach to the job-oriented. According to the
results of this study, the possible outcome was mixed, but generally
those individuals with job-oriented leaders seemed more productive
and efficient. Further specifications for both approaches, such as
joboriented and employee-oriented, are as follows.
• Job Oriented It is also known as Job Centered or Production
Centered approach. In this approach, leaders split the work and
assign it among a unit of workers as per routine tasks, elaborate
work methods and deeply analyze and supervise the work in order
to make sure that the given instructions and work methods are
being followed.
• Employee-Oriented In the Employee-Centered or
EmployeeOriented approach, the leaders build a close relationship
with subordinates and understand their problems with the aim to
grow the work effectiveness by achieving high-performance goals.

Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
Building on the work of the researchers at these
University of Michigan and the Ohio State University ,
Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1960s) proposed a
graphic portrayal of leadership styles through a
managerial grid (sometimes called leadership grid). The
grid depicted two dimensions of leader behaviour,
concern for people (accommodating people’s needs and
giving them priority) on y-axis and concern for
production (keeping tight schedules) on x-axis, with each
dimension ranging from low (1) to high (9), thus creating
81 different positions in which the leader’s style may fall.
(See figure in next page).
The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:
1. Impoverished Management (1, 1): Managers with this approach are
low on both the dimensions and exercise minimum effort to get the
work done from subordinates. The leader has low concern for
employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a result disharmony
and disorganization prevail within the organization. The leaders are
termed ineffective wherein their action is merely aimed at preserving
job and seniority.
2. Task management (9, 1): Also called dictatorial or perish style. Here
leaders are more concerned about production and have less concern
for people. The style is based on theory X of McGregor. The
employees’ needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means
to an end. The leader believes that efficiency can result only through
proper organization of work systems and through elimination of
people wherever possible. Such a style can definitely increase the
output of organization in short run but due to the strict policies and
procedures, high labour turnover is inevitable.
3. Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): This is basically a compromising style
wherein the leader tries to maintain a balance between goals of
company and the needs of people. The leader does not push the
boundaries of achievement resulting in average performance for
Advantages of a behavioural theory of leadership
I. Emphasises concern for team members and people of an
organisation while promoting collaboration
II. Encourages participative decision making to ensure effective
processes
III. Promotes team development by supporting individual and
organisational needs
IV. Supports the alignment of individual and group objectives to
achieve company goals
V. Helps managers understand the impact of their behaviour on
the leadership style and productivity of their team
VI. Helps leaders build lasting relationships with team members VII.
Promotes commitment and contribution to achieving
organisational objectives
organization. Here neither employee nor production needs are fully
met.
Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid cont...
4. Country Club (1, 9): This is a collegial style characterized by low
task and high people orientation where the leader gives
thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them
with a friendly and comfortable environment. The leader feels
that such a treatment with employees will lead to self-motivation
and will find people working hard on their own. However, a low
focus on tasks can hamper production and lead to questionable
results.
5. Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and task
focus, the style is based on the theory Y of McGregor and has
been termed as most effective style according to Blake and
Mouton. The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust,
and respect are the key elements in creating a team atmosphere
which will automatically result in high employee satisfaction and
production.
5. Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership
effectiveness
Fred E. Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership effectiveness
was based on studies of a wide range of group effectiveness, and
concentrated on the relationship between leadership and organizational
performance. According to him, if an organization attempts to achieve
group effectiveness through leadership, then there is a need to assess the
leader according to an underlying trait, assess the situation faced by the
leader, and construct a proper match between the two.
• The contingency theory of leadership effectiveness states that leadership
styles are dependent on the situation.
• When determining distinct leadership styles, contingency theory
highlights three main factors. They are as follows:
• Traits.
• Behaviour.
• Situation.

b) Situational factor
• According to Fiedler, a leader’s behaviour is dependent upon the
favourability of the leadership situation. Three factors work together to
determine how favourable a situation is to a leader. These are...
• Leader-member relations - The degree to which the leaders is trusted and
liked by the group members, and the willingness of the group members to
follow the leader’s guidance
• Task structure - The degree to which the group’s task has been described
as structured or unstructured, has been clearly defined and the extent to
which it can be carried out by detailed instructions
• Position power - The power of the leader by virtue of the organizational
position and the degree to which the leader can exercise authority on
group members in order to comply with and accept his direction and
leadership
• With the help of these three variables, eight combinations of group-task
situations were constructed by Fiedler. These combinations were used to
identify the style of the leader.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model contd...
Fiedler’s Contingency Model contd...
a) Leader’s trait/Styles
In order to assess the attitudes of the leader, Fiedler developed
‘least preferred co-worker’ (LPC) scale in which the leaders are
asked about the person with whom they least like to work. The
scale is a questionnaire consisting of 16 items used to reflect a
leader’s underlying disposition toward others.
• Fiedler states that leaders with high LPC scores are
relationshiporiented and the ones with low scores are task-
oriented.
• According to this scale-
• The more you rate the person you least like to work with, the
more relationship-oriented you are. I.e, High LPC =
Relationshiporiented leader.
• The less you rate the person you like the least working with, the
more task-oriented you are. I.e, Low LPC = Task-oriented leader.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model contd...
c) Leadership Effectiveness/Matching leaders with situation
• The leader’s effectiveness is determined by the interaction
of the leader’s style of behaviour and the favourableness of
the situational characteristics. The most favourable
situation is when leader-member relations are good, the
task is highly structured, and the leader has a strong
position power.
• Research on the contingency model has shown that
taskoriented leaders are more effective in highly
favourable (1,
2, 3) and highly unfavourable situation (7, 8),
whereas relationship-oriented leaders are more effective
in situations of intermediate favourableness (4, 5, 6).
Criticism: Fiedler’s Contingency Model
• One of the biggest criticisms is the lack of flexibility. Fiedler
believed that an individual’s natural leadership style is
 fixed. Hence, the most effective way to handle situations is
to replace the leader. He didn’t allow for flexibility in
leaders.
• LPC scores can fail to reflect the personality traits they are
supposed to reflect.
• The model’s validity has been disputed, despite many
supportive tests.
• The model does not consider the percentage of in-between
situations and unfavorable situations. A clear comparison
between low-LPC leaders and high-LPC leaders is missing.
6. Hersey Blanchard Situational Theory
• Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed the situational model in 1969. It
was initially introduced as the “Life Cycle Theory of Leadership.” Later it was
renamed “Situational Leadership Theory” in the mid-1970.
• Like all contingency theories, Hersey Blanchard Situational Theory also
focuses on the situation. Hersey and Blanchard concentrate on the
characteristics of followers to determine leadership behaviors.
• In this theory, Leadership style changes as per the follower’s ability and
willingness. In 1977, Hersey and Blanchard both developed their divergent
versions of this theory.
• Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory: The semantics of Blanchard’s
model used the word “Development.” He used words like “Directing,”
“Coaching,” and “Supporting.”
• Hersey’s Situational Leadership II Model (SLII Model): The semantic he
semantics of Hersey’s model used Readiness or Maturity.
• Readiness is the extent to which followers have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.
• Ability is the knowledge, experience, and skill that an individual possesses to
do the job and is called job readiness.
• Willingness is the motivation and commitment required to accomplish a
given task. The style of leadership depends on the level of readiness of the
followers.
The readiness(R) is divided into a continuum of four levels which are:
• R1 - low follower readiness - refers to low ability and low willingness of
followers i.e. those who are unable and insecure
• R2 - low to moderate follower readiness - refers to low ability and high
willingness of followers i.e. those who are unable but confident

• R3 - moderate to high follower readiness - refers to high ability and low

willingness of followers i.e. those who are able but insecure
Hersey Blanchard Situational Theory contd,,
• R4 - high follower readiness - refers to high ability and high willingness of
followers i.e. those who are both able and confident.
For each of the four levels of readiness, the leadership style used may
be a combination of task and relationship behaviour.
• Task behaviour: Extent to which the leader spells out the duties and
responsibilities of a follower which includes providing them direction,
setting goals, and defining roles for them. Usually a one-way
communication exists which is meant to provide the direction to the
followers.
• Relationship behaviour: Extent to which the leader listens to the
followers, and provides encouragement to them. Here, a two-way
communication exists between the leader and the follower.
 Hersey Blanchard Situational Theory contd,,
• By combining the task and the relationship behavior, we arrive at
the following four different styles of leadership which
correspond with the different levels of readiness as shown:
• S1 - Telling: This style is most appropriate for low follower
readiness (R1). It emphasizes high task behavior and limited
relationship behavior.
• S2 - Selling: This style is most appropriate for low to moderate
follower readiness (R2). It emphasizes high amounts of both task
and relationship behavior.
• S3 - Participating: This style is most appropriate for moderate to
high follower readiness (R3). It emphasizes high amount of
relationship behavior but low amount of task behavior.
• S4 - Delegating: This style is most appropriate for high follower
readiness (R4). It emphasizes low levels of both task and
relationship behavior.
Path Goal Theory
7. Path Goal Theory
The path-goal theory was developed by Robert House, an
Ohio State University graduate, in 1971. It was inspired by the
work of Martin G. Evans (1970) and Victor Vroom’s
expectancy theory of motivation (1964).
The model specifies the following statements-
• Leaders should engage in different types of leadership
behaviors.
• Leadership style should best fit the working environment.
• Leaders' behavior depends on the nature and the demands of
a particular situation.
• It is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining goals.
• Leaders should provide the direction and support needed by
the followers.
• Leaders should also ensure that their goals are compatible
with the
Robert House ,leadership behaviors or styles-
Path Goal Theory contd..
This theory identifies 4 leaders behaviour/ Leadership Styles
1. Directive: Here the leader provides guidelines, lets subordinates
know what is expected of them, sets performance standards for
them, and controls behavior when performance standards are not
met. He makes judicious use of rewards and disciplinary action.
The style is the same as task-oriented one.
2. Supportive: The leader is friendly towards subordinates and
displays personal concern for their needs, welfare, and well-being.
This style is the same as people-oriented leadership.
3. Participative: The leader believes in group decision-making and
shares information with subordinates. He consults his subordinates
on important decisions related to work, task goals, and paths to
resolve goals.
4. Achievement-oriented: The leader sets challenging goals and
encourages employees to reach their peak performance. The
leader believes that employees are responsible enough to
accomplish challenging goals. This is the same as goal-setting
theory.
Path Goal Theory contd..
Contingencies
• The theory states that each of these styles will be effective in some
situations but not in others. It further states that the relationship
between a leader’s style and effectiveness is dependent on the
following variables:
a) Employee characteristics: These include factors such as
employees’ needs, locus of control, experience, perceived ability,
satisfaction, willingness to leave the organization, and anxiety. For
example, if followers are high inability, a directive style of
leadership may be unnecessary; instead a supportive approach
may be preferable.
b) Environmental factors: : These include factors such as task
structure and team dynamics that are outside the control of the
employee. For example, for employees performing simple and
routine tasks, a supportive style is much effective than a directive
one. Similarly, the participative style works much better for
nonroutine tasks than routine ones.
Path Goal Theory contd..
Path-Goal Theory is not a detailed process but
generally follows three basic steps-
1. Determine the employee and environmental
characteristics.
2. Select a leadership style.
3. Focus on employee motivations that will help them
succeed.
• Path-Goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible. It
believes that leaders can change their style as per
different situations. The theory proposes two
contingency variables1. Environmental factors:
2. Employee characteristics:
Path Goal Theory contd..
Criticism:
• The theory leadership aspects it tries to incorporate are
complex. The behavior, motivation, and process to
apply the right leadership style are challenging.
• The theory lacks a empirical research.
• The path-goal theory fails to explain how leadership
behavior correlates to followers’ motivation. The
approach is only directed towards the followers. It
removes the possibility of followers being able to affect
change on leaders.
• The theory is complex. Hence, it is challenging to use it
in every leadership scenario.
8.Reddin 3-D Leadership Model
• Definition: The Three-Dimensional Grid or 3-D Leadership
Model is developed by Professor Bill Reddin, who introduced the
 concept of “situational demands” which talks about the way in
which the leader must behave to be most effective.
• Reddin 3D Leadership Model: Managerial styles
1. Task-orientation-means the extent to which the superior
directs his subordinate’s efforts towards the goal attainment.
2. Relationship-means the extent to which the manager has
personal relations with his subordinates
3. Orientation effectiveness-means the extent to which the
manager is successful.
Four Leadership styles given by Reddin’s
1. The Separated Manager is the one who is engaged in
correcting deviations. He is the person who formulates the
rules and policies and imposes these on others.
2. The Related Manager is the one who likes to work with
others and see an organization as a social system where
everyone works together. He does not worry about the
time and accepts others as they are and do not try to
change them.
3. The Dedicated Manager is the one who is task oriented
and is only concerned with the production. He does not like
to mix up with the subordinates and cannot work without
power and responsibility.
4. The Integrated Manager is the one who mixes up with the
subordinates and facilitate two way communication. His
major emphasis is on building a strong teamwork and
effective communication network.
Reddin 3-D Leadership Model
Separated basic styles in The Reddin 3D Leadership
Model
1. Deserter, less effective leadership style
This is the manager who is limited in his or her relationship or
task-oriented actions. This is a person who is non-committal,
passive and negative towards managing the development of a
project.
2. Bureaucratic, most effective leadership style
This is the manager who likes to follow the rules to such an
extent that he / she can achieve the reputation of being a rigid
and complicated person, as he/she does not agree to solutions
that are not in line with the company’s entire business scheme
(processes, beliefs, traditions). It is difficult to make him/her
understand how to step outside the context of the hierarchical
processes that the organisation has already established.
 Related basic styles in The Reddin 3D Leadership Model
3. Missionary, less effective leadership style
This manager is less task-oriented and more focused on personal
relationships. They like to have harmony in the work team. They try
to keep their team always happy, listen to their requests and
opinions and do their best to provide protection. This type of style
can lead to the manager not giving honest appraisals and
demanding compliance with the controls and processes that
employees must have in place.
4. Developer, more affective leadership style
6. Benevolent autocrat, the most effective leadership style The
This type of manager uses a limited task orientation and relies
much more on relationships with subordinates. They like to share
knowledge and encourage the development of professional growth
in others. This makes him/her proud to promote the development
of human talent in his/her team and can bring more effectiveness.
Dedicated basic styles in The Reddin 3D Leadership Model
7. Compromiser, less effective leadership style
The manager uses both task-oriented and
relationshiporiented management styles. For this type of
manager both are equally important so they focus on both,
but they may lose control of this focus and not know how to
balance both. They can be indecisive and sensitive when
making decisions. 8. Executive, the most effective
leadership style
In this style the manager uses both task achievement and
relationship management orientations. They like to work in
a problem-solving, goal-achievement oriented way and to
develop the human talent of other employees. He likes to
have a good assertive communication with the team, which
helps and gives them confidence to express their ideas,
opinions and suggestions. This style is effective for team
cohesion towards the achievement of goals.
5. Autocratic, less effective leadership style
In this leadership style the manager acts in a cold and
calculating way by focusing much more on the completion of
tasks and personal relationships are of no importance. He
tends to manage and follow work processes carefully as he
does not have enough trust in others. They do not explain
their decisions as for them their word and action has more
power than that of others. They do not like mistakes and their
personal interaction is low.
manager agrees on objectives and helps his team in the
process. They like to solve operational problems, but do not
have as much patience for solving human relations problems.
They like to be fair when they disagree with someone or
need to get an employee’s attention. They can handle team
relationships in general with ease but find it difficult to focus
on individual relationships.
Integrated basic styles in The Reddin 3D Leadership Model
Management skills development with the The Reddin
3D Leadership Model
The Reddin 3D Model helps to develop management skills
such as:
• Situational sensitivity, ability to diagnose situations
• Flexibility, ability to adapt
• Situational management skills, the ability to make changes
10.Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
• Graen’s leader-member exchange model, also known
as the vertical dyad linkage theory. The theory views
leadership as consisting of a number of dyadic
relationships linking the leader with a follower. The
 quality of the relationship is reflected by the degree of
mutual trust, loyalty, support, respect, and obligation.
• The Leader-Member Exchange Theory first emerged in
the 1970s. It focuses on the relationship that develops
between managers and members of their teams. The
theory states that all relationships between managers
and subordinates go through three stages. These are:
1. Role-Taking.
2. Role-Making.
3. Routinization
Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory stages-
1. Role-Taking
• Role-taking occurs when team members first join the group. Managers use this
time to assess new members' skills and abilities.
Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory stages-
3. Routinization
• During this last phase, routines between team members and their
managers are established.
• In-Group team members work hard to maintain the good opinion of
their managers, by showing trust, respect, empathy, patience, and
persistence.
• Out-Group members may start to dislike or distrust their managers.
Because it's so hard to move out of the Out-Group once the
perception has been established, Out-Group members may have to
change departments or organizations in order to "start over."
• Once team members have been classified, even subconsciously, as
InGroup or Out-Group, that classification affects how their
managers relate to them from then on, and it can become self-
fulfillling.
• For instance, In-Group team members are often seen as rising stars
and the manager trusts them to work and perform at a high level.
This is also the group that the manager talks to most, offering
2. Role-Making
• New team members then begin to work on projects and tasks as part of the team.
In this stage, managers generally expect that new team members will work hard,
be loyal and prove trustworthy as they get used to their new role.
• The theory says that, during this stage, managers sort new team members (often
subconsciously) into one of two groups.
a) In-Group: if team members prove themselves loyal, trustworthy and skilled,
they're put into the In-Group. This group is made up of the team members that
the manager trusts the most. Managers give this group most of their attention,
providing challenging and interesting work, and offering opportunities for
additional training and advancement. This group also gets more one-to-one time
with the manager. Often, people in this group have a similar personality and
work-ethic to their manager.
b) Out-Group: if team members betray the trust of the manager, or prove that
they're unmotivated or incompetent, they're put into the Out-Group. This
group's work is often restricted and unchallenging. Out-Group members tend to
have less access to the manager, and often don't receive opportunities for
growth or advancement.
support and advice, and they're given the best opportunities to test
their skills and grow. So, of course, they're more likely to develop in
their roles.
How to Use the Leader-Member Exchange Theory
1. Identify Your Out-Group
• Chances are, you know who's in your Out-Group already. Take a moment to note
their names down.
• Next, analyze why these people have fallen "out of favour."
• Analyze what they've actually done, and compare the facts with your perceptions.
Do these match, or have you (perhaps subconsciously) blown things out of
proportion?
2. Reestablish the Relationship
• It's important that, as the leader, you make a reasonable effort to reestablish a
relationship with Out-Group team members. Research published in the Leadership
Quarterly journal in 1995 showed that team members who have high-quality
relationships with their leader have higher morale, and are more productive than
those who don't. So you, and your organization, can benefit from creating a better
relationship.
3. Provide Training and Development Opportunities
• the biggest advantage to the Leader-Member Exchange Theory is that it alerts you
to the preference you might unconsciously – and possibly unfairly – be showing
 some team members. This allows you to offer all of your team members
appropriate opportunities for training, development, and advancement.
• Out-Group team members may benefit from a mentoring or coaching relationship
with you.
Leadership-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory cont..
Strengths of LMX Theory
• LMX theory is an exceptional theory of leadership as unlike the
other theories, it concentrates and talks about specific relationships
between the leader and each subordinate.LMX Theory is a robust
explanatory theory.LMX
• Theory focuses our attention to the significance of communication
in leadership. Communication is a medium through which leaders
and subordinates develop, grow and maintain beneficial exchanges.
When this communication is accompanied by features such as
mutual trust, respect and devotion, it leads to effective
leadership.LMX Theory is very much valid and practical in it’s
approach.
• The leader believes in motivating through a system of rewards
and punishment.
• If a subordinate does what is desired, a reward will follow, and
if he does not go as per the wishes of the leader, a
punishment will follow. Here, the exchange between leader
and follower takes place to achieve routine performance
goals.
Transactional Leadership Theory contd---
These exchanges involve four dimensions:
1. Contingent Rewards: Transactional leaders link the goal to rewards,
clarify expectations, provide necessary resources, set mutually agreed
upon goals, and provide various kinds of rewards for successful
performance. They set SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic,
and timely) goals for their subordinates.
2. Active Management by Exception: Transactional leaders actively monitor
the work of their subordinates, watch for deviations from rules and
standards and taking corrective action to prevent mistakes.
3. Passive Management by Exception: Transactional leaders intervene only
when standards are not met or when the performance is not as per the
Criticisms of LMX Theory
• LMX Theory fails to explain the particulars of how high-quality
exchanges are created.LMX Theory is objected on grounds of fairness
and justice as some followers receive special attention of leaders at
workplace and other followers do not.
11. Transactional Leadership Theory
• The transactional style of leadership was first described by
Max Weber in 1947 and then by Bernard Bass in 1981. This
style is most often used by the managers.
• Transactional leadership involves motivating and directing
followers primarily through appealing to their own
selfinterest. The power of transactional leaders comes from
their formal authority and responsibility in the organization.
• The main goal of the follower is to obey the instructions of the
leader. The style can also be mentioned as a ‘telling style’.
expectations. They may even use punishment as a response to
unacceptable performance.
4. Laissez-faire: The leader provides an environment where the
subordinates get many opportunities to make decisions. The leader
himself abdicates responsibilities and avoids making decisions and
therefore the group often lacks direction.
Transformational Leadership Theory
For bringing major changes, transformational leaders must exhibit the
following four factors:
i. Inspirational Motivation: ii.
Intellectual Stimulation iii.
Idealized Influence:
iv. Individualized Consideration:
Inspirational Motivation: The foundation of transformational leadership
is the promotion of consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the
members. Their vision is so compelling that they know what they want
from every interaction. Transformational leaders guide followers by
providing them with a sense of meaning and challenge. They work
 enthusiastically and optimistically to foster the spirit of teamwork and
commitment.
Intellectual Stimulation: Such leaders encourage their followers to be
innovative and creative. They encourage new ideas from their followers
and never criticize them publicly for the mistakes committed by them.
The leaders focus on the “what” in problems and do not focus on the
blaming part of it. They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice
set by them if it is found ineffective.
Transformational Leadership Theory contd...
3. Idealized Influence: They believe in the philosophy that a
leader can influence followers only when he practices what he
preaches. The leaders act as role models that followers seek
to emulate. Such leaders always win the trust and respect of
their followers through their action. They typically place their
followers needs over their own, sacrifice their personal gains
for them, ad demonstrate high standards of ethical conduct.
The use of power by such leaders is aimed at influencing them
to strive for the common goals of the organization.
Criticisms of Transformational Leadership Theory
• Transformational leadership makes use of impression
management and therefore lends itself to amoral self
promotion by leaders
• The theory is very difficult to e trained or taught because it
is a combination of many leadership theories.
• Followers might be manipulated by leaders and there are
chances that they lose more than they gain.
Difference between Transactional and
Transformational Leaders
Transactional leadership Transformational Leadership
Leadership is responsive Leadership is proactive
4. Individualized Consideration: Leaders act as mentors to their
followers and reward them for creativity and innovation. The
followers are treated differently according to their talents and
knowledge. They are empowered to make decisions and are
always provided with the needed support to implement their
decisions.
Transformational Leadership Theory contd...
Assumptions of Transactional Theory
• Employees are motivated by reward and punishment.
• The subordinates have to obey the orders of the superior.
• The subordinates are not self-motivated. They have to be
closely monitored and controlled to get the work done
from them.
Works within the organizational culture Work to change the organizational culture
by implementing new ideas
Transactional leaders make employees Transformational leaders motivate and
achieve organizational objectives through empower employees to achieve
rewards and punishment company’s objectives by appealing to
higher ideals and moral values
Motivates followers by appealing to their Motivates followers by encouraging them
own self-interest to transcend their own interests for those
of the group or unit
12. Likert’s Management System
Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers
for three decades at the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold
model of management systems.
The four systems of management system or the four leadership styles
identified by Likert are:
System 1 - Exploitative Authoritative: Responsibility lies in the hands of the
people at the upper echelons of the hierarchy. The superior has no trust and
confidence in subordinates.
The decisions are imposed on subordinates and they do not feel free at all to
discuss things about the job with their superior. The teamwork or
communication is very little and the motivation is based on threats.
System 2 - Benevolent Authoritative: The responsibility lies at the managerial
levels but not at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy. The superior
has condescending confidence and trust in subordinates (master-servant
relationship).
Here again, the subordinates do not feel free to discuss things about the job
with their superior. The teamwork or communication is very little and
motivation is based on a system of rewards.
Likert’s Management System
System 3 - Consultative: Responsibility is spread widely
through the organizational hierarchy. The superior has
substantial but not complete confidence in subordinates.
Goal-setting or ordering
•
• Control processes
• On the basis of this profile, Likert administered a questionnaire to several
employees belonging to different organizations and from different managerial
positions (both line and staff).
• His studies confirmed that the departments or units employing management
practices within Systems 1 and 2 were the least productive, and the departments
or units employing management practices within Systems 3 and 4 were the most
productive.
Likert’s Management System contd...
Advantages of Likert’s Management System
• With the help of the profile developed by Likert, it became
possible to quantify the results of the work done in the field
of group dynamics.
• Likert theory also facilitated the measurement of the “soft”
areas of management, such as trust and communication.
Some amount of discussion about job related things takes
place between the superior and subordinates. There is a
fair amount of teamwork, and communication takes place
vertically and horizontally. The motivation is based on
rewards and involvement in the job.
System 4 - Participative: Responsibility for achieving the
organizational goals is widespread throughout the
organizational hierarchy.
Likert’s Management System contd...
• The nature of these four management systems has been described by Likert
through a profile of organizational characteristics. In this profile, the four
management systems have been compared with one another on the basis of
certain organizational variables which are:
• Leadership processes
• Motivational forces
• Communication process
• Interaction-influence process
• Decision-making process
12. Continuum of Leadership Behaviour
• The leadership continuum was originally written in 1958 by
Tannenbaum and Schmidt and was later updated in the year
1973. Their work suggests a continuum of possible leadership
behavior available to a manager and along which many
leadership styles may be placed.
• The continuum presents a range of action related to the
degree of authority used by the manager and to the area of
freedom available to non-managers in arriving at decisions.

The model highlights seven leadership styles that occur
across the continuum
4. Joins – The leader presents the problem and then asks the team for
suggestions and options to consider. Through the discussion that follows,
the team helps the leader decide. So, while the leader ultimately makes the
decision, decision making is a very collaborative process, and the team
feels valued and trusted.
5. Consults – The leader proposes a decision and then invites input and
discussion to ensure that the decision is the right one. The team has the
ability to influence the final outcome, and to make changes to the decision.
By using this style, the leader acknowledges that the team has valuable
insight into the problem. This shows that he or she trusts the team
members and wants them to participate actively in problem-solving and
decision making.
6. Delegates – The leader outlines the problem; provides decision
parameters, and allows the team to find solutions and make a final
decision. The leader remains accountable for the outcome, and he controls
risks by setting limits and defining criteria that the final decision must
meet.
The model highlights seven leadership styles that occur
across the continuum
1. Tells – The leader makes decisions and expects the team to follow,
and the team has very little involvement in decision-making. This
type of style is sometimes used early in a team's existence, before
trust is established, or with very inexperienced team members.
Continued use of this style can be very frustrating for team
members and can break down trust, so leaders must be careful to
use this style only when absolutely necessary.
2. Sells – The leader makes the decision, but provides a rationale.
Team buy-in is important. Although the decision won't be changed,
the team is allowed to ask questions and feel that its needs are
being considered.
3. Suggests – The leader outlines the decision, includes a rationale,
and asks if there are any questions. While the decision is already
made, this style helps the team understand why, so team members
don't feel so much that the decision is forced on them.
7. Abdicates – The leader asks the team to define the problem, develop
options, and make a decision. The team is free to do what's necessary to
solve a problem while still working under reasonable limits, given
organizational needs and objectives.
Using the Continuum
1. Forces in the Manager: The behavior of the leader is influenced by his personality,
background, knowledge, and experience. These forces include:
– Value systems
– Confidence in subordinates
– Leadership inclinations
– Feelings of security in an uncertain situation
2. Forces in the subordinate: The personality of the subordinates and their
expectations from the leader influences their behavior. The factors include:
– Readiness to assume responsibility in decision-making
– Degree of tolerance for ambiguity
– Interest in the problem and feelings as to its importance
– Strength of the needs for independence
– Knowledge and experience to deal with the problem
– Understanding and identification with the goals of the organization
3. Forces in the situation: The environmental and general situations also affect the
leader’s behavior. These include factors like:
– Type of organization
– Group effectiveness
– Nature of the problem
– Time pressure

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