Assignment for MID

Topic : Basics of Blasting

Submitted By : Rahat Jamil

Student ID : 201734014
Course Code : PME-465
Course Name : Rock Blasting & Explosive Technology
 INTRODUCTION

To have a deep know knowledge about the basics of blasting, it is needed

to learn the following things :
Drilling
Blasting
Explosive Technology
DRILLING
 DEFINITION OF DRILLING

The process of making a hole in hard materials such as rocks

and earth is called drilling.

It is the first operation carried out in the field of blasting and its
purpose is to open holes with the adequate geometry and
distribution within the rock masses where the explosive charges
will be placed along with their initiating devices.
 OPERATING COMPONENTS OF DRILLING

 Drill
It is the source of energy. It is the type of tool which holds the drill bit and rotates it to
provide axial force to create a hole.
 Drill Bits
It is the applier of energy. Cutting tools is used to create cylindrical holes.
 Drill Rod
It is the transmitter of energy. It transmits energy from drill to bit
 Circulation Fluid
It cleans the hole, controls the dust, cools the bit, stabilizes the hole.
 SYSTEMS OF ROCK DRILLING

 Mechanical: Percussion, rotary, rotary-percussion.

 Thermal: Flame, plasma, hot fluid, Freezing.

 Sonic: High frequency vibration.

 Chemical: micro-blast, dissolution.

 Electrical: magnetic induction.

 Seismic: Laser ray.

 Nuclear: Fusion, fission.

 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS OF ROCK DRILLING
 Percussion
Compression
 Rotary
Shear
 Percussion-Rotary
Compression shear
FACTORS AFFECTING DRILLING RATE

Variable Factors Fixed Factors

Type of Drill bit Rock hardness

Bit weight Formation pore pressure

Rotary speed
Bottom-hole cleaning
Mud properties
 DRILLING EFFICIENCY
It can be measured by taking into consideration
the following parameters
 By the manner in which the drilling tool i.e. the
drill acts upon the hole bottom (percussive,
rotary or percussive rotary).
 The forces and the rate with which the drilling
tools act upon the hole bottom.
 Hole diameter and its depth.
 The method and speed with which the drilling
cuttings are removed from the hole.
 The compressive stress σc and shearing stress
σsh are of decisive importance.
 Bulk density of rock γ must be accounted.
 Drilling Efficiency Index
Id = 0.007 (σc + σsh) + 0.7 γ
Where :
σc = Compressive stress (kg/cm2);
σsh = Shear stress (kg/cm2);
γ = Bulk density (kg/m3)
• Id is 1–5, then easily drilled
• Id from 5.1 to 10, then medium drilled
• Id ranges from 10.1–15, then difficultly drilled
• If Id ranges between 15.1 to 24, then extreme
difficultly drilled
 DRILL SELECTION

Performance can be measured from

 Process energy & power consumption

 Penetration rate

 Bit wear

 Operating & ownership cost (overall cost)

BLASTING
 DEFINITION OF BLASTING

 The process of breaking rocks into smaller pieces by the controlled use of
explosives is called blasting.
 It is used for rock excavation on both small and large-scale projects.

 It is performed to break rock so that it may be quarried for processing in an

aggregate production operation, or to excavate a right-of-way.
 This is a step-by-step procedure for designing the blast hole layout and
calculating the amount of explosives for blasting rock.
BLASTING CYCLE

1. Drilling :
It is the first operation carried out and its purpose is to
Open holes, with the adequate geometry and distribution
within the rock masses, where the explosive charges will
be placed along with their initiating devices.

2. Stemming/Loading Explosives :
It is the process of filling the empty part of a charge case,
such as a blasthole or well, with an inert stemming material
(sand, gravel, or clay) to retain the products of the
detonation of an explosive charge in an enclosed space.
BLASTING CYCLE (CONTD…)
3. Blasting :
It is the process of breaking rocks into smaller pieces by the
controlled use of explosives. This is a step-by-step procedure for
designing the blast hole layout and calculating the amount of
explosives for blasting rock.
4. Ventilation :
It provides a flow of air to the underground workings of a mine of
sufficient volume to dilute and remove dust and noxious gases
(typically NOx, SO2, methane, CO2 and CO) and to regulate
temperature. The source of these gases are equipment that runs on
diesel engines, blasting with explosives, and the orebody itself.
5. Mucking :
The blasted rock has to be removed from the tunnel after blasting.
This process is known as mucking.
BLAST TIMING & DESIGN CONFIGURATION
 BLAST DESIGN
A good blast design is the safe and economic
way to do blasting. There are two factors
those affect blast design-Geological factors
(out of blaster's control) and Controllable
factors.
Controllable factors are :
• Burden
• Spacing
• Bench Height
• Borehole Diameter
• Stemming
• Sub-drilling
• Powder column length
• Design of the delay firing system
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)

• Burden
 Burden distance is the shortest distance to stress relief at
the time a blasthole detonates.
 It is normally the distance to the free face in an excavation,
whether a quarry situation or a highway cut.
 It is roughly 24 to 36 times the explosive diameter
 When the burden distance is insufficient, rock will be
thrown for excessive distances from the face, fragmentation
may be excessively fine and air blast levels will be high.
 When one or two rows of blastholes are used, the burden
distance between rows will usually be equal.
 The burden distance should also be adjusted because of the
geological variations.
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)
• Spacing
 Spacing is the distance between blast holes fired in the
same row.
 It is necessary to complete burden calculations before
determining the spacing.
 It is 1.0 to 2.0 times the burden.
 Proper spacing of blastholes is controlled by the initiation
timing and the stiffness ratio.
 When holes are spaced too close and fired instantaneously,
venting of the energy will occur with resulting air blast and
flyrock. When the spacing is extended, there is a limit
beyond which fragmentation will become harsh.
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)

• Bench Height
It is the vertical distance between crest and
toe of the bench.
It is1.5 to 4 times the burden, or possibly
higher.
It is usually limited on the low end by the
height of the stemming column required and
its limiting effect on the amount of
explosive that can be loaded, and limited on
the high end by the height of the digging
equipment for safety reasons.
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)
• Stemming
 Stemming is the adding of an inert material such as drill cuttings, on top
of the explosive in a blasthole for the purpose of confining the energy
of the explosive.
 It is 0.5 to 1.3 times the burden.
 It is common practice to use drill cuttings as the stemming material.
 To function properly the materials used for stemming must lock into the
bore hole. The stemming material should have an average diameter 0.05
times the diameter of the hole and should be angular.
 If the stemming distance is too great there will be poor top breakage
from the explosion and backbreak will increase.
 When the stemming distance is inadequate, the explosion will escape
prematurely from the hole.
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)
• Subdrilling
 A shot will normally not break to the very bottom of the
blasthole. This can be understood by remembering that the
second mechanism of breakage is flexural rupture.
 To achieve a specified grade, one will need to drill below
the desired floor elevation. This portion of the blasthole
below the desired final grade is termed “Subdrilling”.
 It represents the depth required for explosive placement, not
a field drillimg depth.
 It is 0.1 to 0.5 times the burden.
 BLAST DESIGN (CONTD…)
• Powder Column Length :
The powder column length is the total hole
length less stemming.
In other words, it is the blasthole depth minus
the stemming depth.
Blasthole depth = Bench height + Sub-drilling
Powder Column = Blasthole depth – Stemming
If a hole is loaded with ANFO, it will require a
primer to initiate the explosive.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN

Selection of blasting cut pattern varies with the following criteria :

type and size of the drill’s used

depth of hole

kind of rock

quantity, rapidity of the explosive

amount of stemming
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)
Cuts
The principle patterns in sub-surface excavations are :
Wedge cut
Pyramid cut
Drag cut
Fan cut
Burn cut
Ring drilling
Each type of cut has many variations of designs to make them adaptable to a
particular formation.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)

1. Wedge/V Cut
 Blasthole are drilled at an angle to the face in an
uniform wedge formation so that the axis of
symmetry is at the center line of the face.
 Centrally one wedge is found to create the free
surface. There ends are trying to meet each other.
 Holes are drilled in inclined manner. These are drilled
such a manner so that and wedge will be found.
 The apex angle is near as possible to 60 deg.
 It is suited to large size drifts which have well
laminated or fissured rocks.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)

2. Pyramid/Diamond Cut
Pyramid cut or diamond cut is basically a double wedge cut.
Wedges are given in the vertically and horizontally.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)

3. Drag Cut
 It is basically a half wedge cut.
 Wedges are given in the horizontally.
 As it is half wedge cut, the number of delay
requirement is also less.
 Number of rows required in the drag cut is less.
 It is particularly suitable in small sectional drifts where
a pull of up to 1m is very useful.
 It is useful for the soft rock condition.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)

4. Fan Cut

Half wedge is formed in the horizontal wedge

and that cut is called fan cut.
Fan cut and drag cut, these 2 are basically half
wedge cut, but only these are perpendicular to
each other.
It is applicable mainly where only one machine
is employed for narrow drive.
Fan cut results little bit better over the drag cut
because the confinement of the charges are
more or less not against the gravity.
 BLAST PATTERN DESIGN (CONTD…)

5. Burn Cut
 A series of parallel holes are drilled closely spaced at right angles to
the face.
 A centrally large dia hole is created which act as a free face for the
adjacent holes.
 Some of the holes left uncharged to give relief to the heavy
explosives in the charged holes.
 Since all holes are at right angles to the face, hole placement and
alignment are easier than in other types of cuts.
 The burn cut is particularly suitable for use in massive rock such as
granite, basalt etc.
 BLASTING SEQUENCES
 Cut holes
• Must be broken and completely removed to create a void for
expansion and relief.
• Prior to the blasting of the stopping holes, first the cut has to
be created at first.
 Cut spreader
• Second delay
 Stopping holes
• Third delay
 Contour holes
• 4th 5th 6th
• or maybe in the simultaneously in the 4 th delay.
 SURFACE & UNDERGROUND DRILLING AND BLASTING

 It is very easy to carry out drilling in the surface condition in compare to underground drilling because
there 2 free faces (top & front part) are available in surface mines where we can throw the rock in front
direction whereas in underground only one free face (front) is available. So, the purpose is that to
create another free face so that the rock can be thrown on that direction.
 Surface drilling is carried out on the bench Rig is placed on the desired place, and the drilling is
carried out with the percussion and rotation is given for the rotary action of the drill bit. Flushing
media is taking out rock chips from the hole. The method is carried out in the surface where the
drilling is carried out either vertically or near vertically.
 In underground drilling, multiple rigs are available in this drill machine. After completion of drilling :
 Explosives are inserted into the hole
 Explosive cartridges are inserted and then pushed by the wooden rod.
 Ladder is used for charging the explosive inside the hole in the top part.
 Then blasting is carried out, and the rock is excavated.
 UNDERGROUND DRILLING & BLASTING METHODS
1. Full Face Method :
Blasting round is designed to pull the full cross sectional area of the face in one blast. For tunnel
of small cross section the full face method is adopted.
 UNDERGROUND DRILLING & BLASTING METHODS (CONTD…)

2. Top Heading & Benching Method

First top free space is created to create bench.

Then, benching is blasted like surface drilling
and blasting.
When rock conditions are good, it may even be
used for large tunnels, face area of 80-100 m2
For other conditions, initial full face top heading
may be enlarged to final shape and size using
split section driving technique.
 UNDERGROUND DRILLING & BLASTING
METHODS (CONTD…)

2. Top Heading & Benching Method (CONTD…)

Heading Round
Blastholes drilled in the face of a tunnel are
collectively known as the round when blasted at a
time.
They must be drilled and positioned efficiently.
The initial step is in making an opening into the
solid face to produce a void and to create a face
or plane of relief as deep as it is practical.
 UNDERGROUND DRILLING & BLASTING METHODS (CONTD…)

2. Top Heading & Benching Method (CONTD…)

 Heading Round (CONTD…)
 The plane of relief or void is called the cut. A round consists of several
classes of holes.
 First an initial cut is created. Then that cut area has to be spreaded to
achieve sufficient area so that other drill holes which are drilled in the
adjacent of that area can easily utilize this free face area.
 After blasting of heading round rest portion the blasting is as same as
the bench blasting which is carried out in the surface. All the holes
placed in this position are horizontally drilled.
 Contour holes are basically consists of roof contour holes, wall contour
holes, lifters/floor contour holes. Contour holes are drilled & blasted in a
special manner.
 ISSUES OF BLASTING

The size (diameter) of the blasthole will affect blast considerations

concerning :

Airblast

Ground vibration

Flyrock

Fragmentation
 ISSUES OF BLASTING (CONTD…)

•• Airblast
 

 An airblast is an airborne shock wave that results from the detonation of explosives.
 The severity of an airblast is dependant on explosive charge, distance, and especially the explosives
confinement.

P = []-1.2
Where :
P = pressure (kPa)
K = state of confinement
Q = maximum instantaneous charge (kg)
R = distance from charge (m)
 ISSUES OF BLASTING (CONTD…)
•• Ground
  Vibration
When an explosive is detonated in a blasthole, a pressure wave is generated in the surrounding rock. As this
pressure wave moves from the borehole it forms seismic waves by displacing particles. The particle movement is
measured to determine the magnitude of the blast vibration. Maximum particle vibration can be estimated using
the following formula :

V = K[]B
Where :
V = peak particle velocity (mm/s)
K = site and rock factor constant
Q = maximum instantaneous charge (kg)
B = constant related to the rock and site (usually -1.6)
R = distance from charge (m)
 ISSUES OF BLASTING (CONTD…)
• Flyrock
 Flyrock is one of the most hazardous events in blasting operation of surface mines. This is
considered a significant issue in bench blasting.
 Flyrock is the rock that is ejected from the blast site in a controlled explosion in mining
operations. It can vary in mass from marble-sized to car-sized.
 It is the undesirable throw of debris from a blast because it can cause severe injury and property
damage.
 Shotfirers must take precautions to prevent it, especially if blasting occurs near property or
people.
 Flyrock is usually caused by the incorrect selection or application of burden, insufficient
stemming length or blast holes initiated out of sequence.
 Good blast design is the best way to avoid flyrock.
 ISSUES OF BLASTING (CONTD…)

• Rock Fragmentation
Rock fragmentation, which is the fragment size distribution of blasted rock
material, is used in the mining industry as an index to estimate the effect of
bench blasting.
It is affected by blast condition such as specific gravity, spacing, burden etc.
Rock fragmentation depends upon two groups of variables: rock mass properties
which cannot be controlled and drill-and-blast design parameters that can be
controlled and optimized.
EXPLOSIVE TECHNOLOGY
 DEFINITION OF EXPLOSIVE
Explosive is a solid or liquid substance or a mixture of substances which on
application of a suitable stimulus is converted in a very short time interval into
other more stable substances, largely or entirely gaseous, with the development of
heat and high pressure”
It is a chemical compound or mixture of compounds that undergoes a very rapid
decomposition when initiated by energy in the form of heat, impact, friction, or
shock.
This decomposition produces more stable substances, mostly gases, and a large
amount of heat.
The very hot gases produce extremely high pressures within the borehole, and it is
these pressures that cause the rock to be fragmented.
 PHASES OF EXPLOSION

When the explosive is detonated, an explosion

can be broken down into four phases:
• Release of gas : Gas is released
• Intense heat : Temperature of the gas
increases
• Extreme pressure : Pressure also increases
(Charles’ law)
• The explosion : Move and break the rock
 EXPLOSIVES SELECTION CRITERIA

The blaster should select a product that will give lowest cost per unit of rock broken, while assuring that fragmentation and
displacement of rock are adequate for the job at hand.
Following factors should be taken into account while selecting the explosives;
 Explosive Cost
 Charge Diameter
 Sensivity Considerations
 Cost of Drilling
 Fragmentation Difficulties
 Water Conditions
 Adequacy of Ventilation
 Atmosphere Temperature
 Storage Considerations
 Propagating Ground
 COMMON INGREDIENTS OF EXPLOSIVES
 Fuels
• Common Fuel oil, carbon, aluminium, TNT
 Oxidizers
• Common AN, Sodium nitrate, Calcium carbonate etc etc
 Sensitizers
• NG, TNT, Nitro-starch, aluminium etc
 Energizers
• Metallic powder
 Miscellaneous substances in varying percentage.
• Water, thickeners, gelatinizers, emulsifiers, stabilizers
 Main elements of the ingredients
 Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Carbon; plus certain metallic elements,
aluminium, magnesium, sodium, calcium etc
TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
EXPLOSIVES IN BLASTING SYSTEM
 EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES
 Strength
 Velocity of Detonation
 Density
 Water Resistant
 Fume Characteristics, or Class or Medical Aspects
 Oxygen Balance
 Sensitivity
 Safety in Handling
 Storage Qualities
 Flammability
 Freezing
 Physical Characteristics
 Explosive Cost
 EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES (CONTD…)
 Strength
It is the energy released/unit weight (known as weight
strength); or per unit volume (known as bulk strength) of an
explosive. Strength of an explosive is measured by Shock
generated (VOD and speed of chemical reaction), Gas
volume, Energy, Detonation pressure, Explosion temperature.
 Velocity of Detonation (VOD)
It is the velocity with which the detonation waves move
through a column of explosives. The factors that affect the
detonation velocity are : Explosive type, Diameter,
Confinement, Temperature & Priming.
 Density
It is the explosive weight per given volume. The explosives’
density is in the range of 0.5 to 1.7. A dense explosive
releases more energy/unit volume, hence it is useful for the
hard and denser strata. For any explosive there is a critical
density, above which it cannot reliably detonate.
 Water Resistance
It is the ability to resist contamination or a reduction in strength
when exposed to water. Sometimes it is determined by the length of
time it can be submerged in water and still perform as designed. For
example, ANFO is poor water-resistant. Slurries are good water-
resistant whereas the NG based explosives are the best water
resistant.
 Fume Class
It is the amount of toxic fumes which determine its safety to be used
in particular situation such as underground operations. It varies from
0.023m3/kg (fume volume/unit weight) to as high as 0.094m3/kg.
 Oxygen Balance
Oxygen balanced mixture generate minimum harmful gases and
maximum energy. Explosive contains oxidizing and combustible
(fuels) ingredients. A proper balance of these ingredients is
essential to minimize production of the toxic (poisonous) gases.
 EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES (CONTD…)
 Sensitivity
It is the minimum energy/pressure needed for detonation. It is
measured as the explosive’s propagation property to bridge a
gap between two consecutive cartridges or a column of an
explosive charge e.g. if a cartridge is cut into two halves, and
the resultant pieces are kept apart. By initiating one of them,
with how much gap the other will be able to accept the
propagation wave, if blasted unconfined in a paper tube.
 Safety In Handling
In order to have a safe manufacturing, transport, handling
and the end use of an explosive, various tests are made on the
ingredients and final product. The tests include Impact test
(fall hammer test), Friction pendulum test, Torpedo friction
test, Projectile impact test and bullet sensitivity test.
 Storage Qualities
It is the measure of how explosive can be
stored without affecting its safety, reliability,
and performance. Early nitroglycerin (NG)
dynamites were extremely poor for storing
due to separation of NG from the other
components and creates an extremely
hazardous condition.
 Flammability
It is the easiness to ignite by flame or heat.
 Freezing
It is important for safety and performance
especially in cold climate. Anit freezing
additives may be used.
 EXPLOSIVES PROPERTIES (CONTD…)
 Physical Characteristics
Commercial explosives can take three basic forms: granular, gelatin, slurry and emulsion. The
choice of form depends on the usage required.
 Explosive Cost
While selecting an explosive its cost plays an important role. Comparing to AN (Ammonium
Nitrate), the relative cost of some of the common explosives on unit weight.
 CHEMICAL REACTION OF EXPLOSIVE
 Explosives consist of oxidizers and fuels mixed together in a proper proportion to produce the desired violent chemical
reaction. Relatively inexpensive oxidizers and fuels are generally used to produce a cost-efficient mixture.
 The primary criterion of effective energy release is the oxygen balance. Two reasons for careful balancing of oxygen fuel
mixture :
 The energy output is optimized
 The formation of toxic chemical gases such as oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane and others is minimized.
 If oxygen, hydrogen and carbon are involved and the reaction forms oxygen, carbondioxide and water the equation will
be Original oxygen content-oxygen formed into carbondioxide-oxygen formed into water (OB)

OB = Oo – 2Co – 0.5Ho
Where, OB = oxygen balance (g-atoms/kg)

Oo, Co and Ho represents the number of g- atoms/kg of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen in original explosive mixture.

The coefficients of Co and Ho represents the number of atoms of oxygen required to satisfy one atom of carbon and
hydrogen in reaction.
 CHEMICAL REACTION OF EXPLOSIVE (CONTD…)
 If Aluminium, calcium and sodium are present in explosive, they form Al2O3, CaO and Na2O

OB = Oo – 2Co – 0.5Ho – 0.667 Alo – Cao – 0.5Nao

 Energy released during reaction is obtained by calculating the difference in heats of formation of
ingredients and products.
 The consequences of departing from zero oxygen balance can be illustrated by the evaluation of
three different ammonium nitrate (AN)- fuel oil (FO) mixtures (ANFO).
 94.5% AN plus 5.5% FO (oxygen balanced)

3NH4NO3 + CH2 = 7H2O + CO2 + 3N2 + 930 kcal/kg

 92% AN plus 8.0% FO (fuel excess)

2NH4NO3 + CH2 = 5H2O + CO2 + 2N2 + 810 kcal/kg

 96.6% AN plus 3.4% FO (fuel shortage)

5NH4NO3 + CH2 = 11H2O + CO2 + 4N2 + 2NO + 600 kcal/kg

 DETONATION AND DEFLAGRATION
An explosive is any chemical compound mixture, or device, the primary objective
of which is to function by explosion. The decomposition of the explosive is a high-
velocity exothermic reaction, accompanied by the liberation of vast amounts of
energy and hot gases at tremendous pressure.
The process is termed detonation if the propagation speed of reaction through the
explosive mass is supersonic. Example : Blasting Agent.
The decomposition is called deflagration and the chemical agent a low explosive if
the speed of the reaction is subsonic. Example : Gun Powder.
 Detonation may properly termed an explosion, accompanied by the formation of a
shock wave.
 Deflagration is vary rapid burning but not an explosion and not associated with a
shock wave.
DETONATION AND DEFLAGRATION
(CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM)
 MECHANISM OF EXPLOSION
• A significant portion of the detonation reaction takes place after the Chapman-
Jouguet (C-J), or sonic plane. This results in a lower detonation pressure and
velocity,
• This detonation process can be broken down into two phases
 Shock Energy
 Heave Energy
• The expanding reaction zone behind the C-J plane results in the shock phase of the
detonation process. This phase is energy intensive and not only enlarges the
borehole, but also significantly weakens the nearby rock.
• Following the equilibrium point is the heave phase. During this phase, no further
expansion of the borehole takes place. More commonly witnessed effects,
fragmentation and movement take place in this phase.
 MECHANISM OF EXPLOSION (CONTD…)
 Detonation Zone Effect
• During explosion chemical reaction of explosive
produces a detonation reaction that propagates
through charge and into surrounding rock.
• Primary reaction occurs in the zone bounded by
shock front and Chapman-Jourguet (C-J) plane
in diagram.
• This zone is very narrow in high explosive that
has a small critical diameter (smallest diameter
of cartridge that can be detonated)
 THEORY OF ROCK FAILURE IN BLASTING

 Two effects are primarily responsible for breaking rock

 Impact of shock wave
As soon as detonation is initiated in the explosive charge, a shock front forms, propagating beyond the charge
into the adjoining rock as a stress wave. It has two components : Longitudinal wave & Transverse wave. Major
rock fragmentation occurs when the tension wave reflects back from the free face because rock is weaker in
tension. Shock waves are more effective in hard, brittle rock.
Example: Granite, tectonite
 Expansion of gas bubble
It propagates at a slower rate, and whereas stress waves produce mainly a shattering action, the gas bubble
causes a heaving action. The expanding effect of high-pressure gas radiating through blasting fractures and pre-
existing joints in the rock is to displace and move the already broken rock fragments, thus creating breakage.
Gas expansion are more effective in soft, plastic or jointed rock.
Example : Shale, salt, coal
 THEORY OF ROCK FAILURE IN BLASTING (CONTD…)

 Pressures Produce Explosive Forces

 A blasting agent is a chemical material that can detonate under right
impulse but meets prescribed criteria for insensitivity to initiation.
 Slurry blasting agent has a greater gas pressure and is more capable
of heaving the broken rock,
 Slurry explosive has a higher detonation pressure and is more
capable of shattering hard rock.
 The shock (stress) wave moving out from explosive material creates
the initial or detonation pressure Pd. It is the pressure that gives the
explosive its shattering action in breaking rock.
 A low explosive generates no shock wave and hence no Pd.
 A sustained or explosion pressure Pe, also called borehole gas
pressure follows the detonation
 BLASTING & CRATER FORMATION
 The term “cratering” in blasting is applied to the formation of a surface cavity in a material as
the result of detonation of an explosive in that material.
 The explosive used in the crater method are normally spherical or geometric equivalent.
 ANFO LOADER AND LOADING

ANFO loading in large diameter down holes is hardly any problem because the
mixed ANFO can be directly poured inside the holes.
It consists of 94% porous prilled ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) (AN), which acts
as the oxidizing agent and absorbent for the fuel, and 6% number 2 fuel oil (FO).
For large diameters, mixed ANFO, is also available in a cartridge form, which can
be loaded like any other explosive.
Only for small diameter holes, loading has to be done by pneumatic means for
quick, compact and thorough loading.
 LOADING EQUIPMENT

The loading equipment is known as Anoloaders.

The loaders are broadly of 3 types:

Pressure type

Ejector type

Combine type (combining pressure and ejecting features)

 PNEUMATIC LOADERS
Pressure type loaders
 These are heavy duty and fast loading
transportable machines and can load effectively up
to 25 meters of vertically up holes.
 The pressure type loader essentially consists of a
tank with cap, discharge valve, air cylinder and
remote control unit, and gauges.
 Loading rate is directly dependent upon the
pressure suitable for loading. An increased
pressure develops in blowing of ANFO out very
fast, whereas, a decrease in pressure results in
locking of ANFO inside the loading hose.
Ejector type loader
 This is a portable air operated loader
(fig. a) for ANFO loading in holes of
small length and diameters.
 ANFO particles bombard against the
loaded front and gets broken, resulting
into compaction, but in the pressure
type the prills crack against the positive
pressure from one side and as soon as
ANFO leaves the loading hose, it is
broken into smaller fragments.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PNEUMATIC LOADERS