LECTUTRE – UNIT 2

J.SWARNA MALINI
AP/ECE
Simplified path loss model:

 Capture main characteristics of ray tracing using

simplified model

where K is a constant factor (Pr(d0)/Pt), d0 is a reference

distance, and Gamma is the path loss exponent.
Cont...
• Path loss exponent is function of carrier frequency,
environment, obstructions, etc. Typically ranges from 2
to 8 (at around 1 GHz).
• good for high-level analysis.
• Due to scattering phenomena in the antenna near-
field, the model is generally only valid at transmission
distances d > d0,
• where d0 is typically assumed to be 1-10 m
indoors and 10-100 m outdoors.
Cont...
• K can also be determined by measurement at d0 or
optimized (alone or together with ) to minimize the
mean square error (MSE) between the model and
empirical measurements.

• Path loss exponents at higher frequencies tend to be

higher while path loss exponents at higher antenna
heights tend to be lower
Empirical Models
Irregular terrain, like in cities, doesn’t lend itself to
simple analytical path loss models.
Empirical path loss models based on extensive
measurements.
 Okumura Model: Empirical model for irregular terrain.
 Hata Model: Analytical approximation to Okumura
model.
 Cost 231 Extension to Hata Model: Extends Hata model to
2 GHZ and to lower mobile antenna heights. Widely used
in 2G simulations.
Cont..
Piecewise linear models - capture multiple slopes
associated with path loss.
TGn Model: Developed by the IEEE Standards Body for
802.11n WiFi systems. Multiple models for indoor and
outdoor systems with different amounts of multipath.
Models have poor accuracy (15-20 dB STD error),
especially in environments different from those upon
which the empirical models are based.
Okumura’s Model
One of the most common models for signal prediction in
large urban macrocells.
applicable over distances of 1-100 Km and frequency
ranges of 150-1500 MHz.
Path loss is

The values of Amu and GAREA are obtained from

Okumura’s empirical plots
cont..

 Correction factors related to terrain are also developed

to improve the model accuracy.
Hata Model
- empirical formulation of the graphical path loss data
provided by Okumura
- simplifies calculation of path loss
median path loss in urban area is given by

a(hre) is a correction factor for the mobile antenna

height based on the size of the coverage area.
cont
For small to medium sized cities

For urban and suburban areas,

Cont...
Hata’s model does not provide for any path specific
correction factors
good model for first generation cellular systems, since
d< 1km.
does not model propagation well in current cellular
systems with smaller cell sizes and higher frequencies.
Indoor environments are also not captured with the
Hata model.
COST231 Extension to Hata
Model
Up to 2 GHz

is restricted to the following range of parameters:

1.5GHz < fc < 2 GHz, 30m < ht < 200 m,
1m < hr < 10 m, 1Km < d < 20 Km.
Walfisch/Bertoni Model
 uses diffraction to predict average signal strength at
street level.
Path loss

Q2 reflects the signal power reduction due to buildings

that block the receiver at street level
 P1 is based on the signal loss from the rooftop to the
street due to diffraction.
Cont..
The model has been adopted for the IMT-2000
standard.
Other models for path loss in macrocells include
 the Longley-Rice model,
the Durkin model
 the Feuerstein model.
Piecewise Linear (Multi-Slope)
Model
common method for modeling path loss in outdoor
microcells and indoor channels
dB vs log distance
Cont…
Once location of breakpoints are fixed, the slopes
corresponding to each segment can be obtained by
linear regression.
dual-slope model
Cont..
The multiple equations in the dual-slope model can
be captured with the following dual-slope
approximation
Indoor Propagation Models
Indoor environments differ widely in
the materials used for walls and floors,
 the layout of rooms,
the location and material in obstructing objects,
the number of floors
 and the size of each room
Measurements indicates that the attenuation per floor
is greatest for the first floor & decreases with each
subsequent floor.
Cont..
at 900 MHz the attenuation for single floor ranges
from 10-20 dB, while subsequent floor attenuation is 6-
10 dB per floor for the next three floors.

Partition materials and dielectric properties vary

widely, and thus so do partition losses
Cont..
a few examples of partition losses measured at 900-
1300 MHz
experimental data for floor and partition loss can be
incorporated into the simple path loss model

FAFi represents the floor attenuation factor (FAF) for

the ith floor
PAFi represents the partition attenuation factor (PAF)
associated with the ith partition
Cont..
Another important factor is the building penetration
loss.
building penetration loss depends on
• frequency,
• height,
• and the building materials
• range from 8-20 dB for 900 MHz to 2 GHz
as frequency increases, penetration loss decreases by
about 1.4 dB per floor
THANK YOU