St. Mary's Research Methods in Accounting & Finance

St.
Mary’s University
Department of Accounting and Finance
RESEARCH METHODS
IN
ACCOUNTING & FINANCE
By
Misraku M.(Ph.D)
Note: The sequence of chapters and titles within it may not
properly follow the course syllabus. It prepared for tutorial
class to counter vail the classes missed during the Corona
Pandemic
2
Course objectives
At completion of this module, student will able to:
Apply business research methods in doing
research
Have fundamental knowledge for scientific
reasoning and solutions for business problems
Explain the various tools and techniques for
research
Discuss sources of data and data collection
3
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH
4
1
Concepts of Scientific Research
 Basics of Research
 Defining research
 Factors stimulating research
 Purpose of Studying Research methods
 Importance of research
 Motivation for research
 Managerial value of research
 Characteristics of good research
1.1 Research Basics
1.1.1 Defining Research

 “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge ” The
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
 broadly, any subject of inquiry with regard to collection of information,
interpretation of facts, and revision of existing theories or laws in the light
of new facts or evidence.
 “systematized effort to gain new knowledge” Redman

and Mory
 a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic.
 Original & creative intellectual activity carried out in different

places to discover new facts & apprise existing ones
 Search for knowledge; movement from known to unknown; a voyage to
knowledge.
 Process of defining problem to reaching conclusion
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.2 Factors stimulating research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group(studies with this object in view
are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.3 Purpose of Studying Research methods
(i) Career of carrying out research

 the same constitute the tools of his trade
 good training specially to the new research worker and enables

him to do better research
(ii) ability to evaluate and use research results with

reasonable confidence
 helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where
persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research
results for action
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.3 Purpose of Studying Research methods
(iii) satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool

 provides tools to look at things in life objectively
 a way of looking at the world and of judging everyday experience.

Accordingly, it enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical
(iv) helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them
and enables him to take rational decisions
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.4 Importance of Research

 “The secrete of success is to know something nobody else
knows” Aristotle(Research is….)
 “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention” Hudson Maxim
 Increased amounts of research make progress possible
 Inculcates scientific and inductive thinking & promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization
 In modern times of increasingly complex nature of business
and government, role of research has increased in solving
operational problems as an aid to economic policy
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1.1 Research Basics

 More specifically,
1. Research provides the basis for nearly all government

policies in our economic system
 Budget decision(needs & desires of people and revenues)
 Devise alternative policies and examine their consequences
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research

certainly facilitates the decisions of the policy maker
11
1.1 Research Basics

2. Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and
industry.
 Crucial and their results assist in taking business

decisions:
 Market research
 Operations research
 Motivational research
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1.1 Research Basics

 Market research is the investigation of the structure and
development of a market for the purpose of formulating efficient
policies for purchasing, production and sales
 Operations research refers to the application of mathematical,

logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business
problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization
(optimization problems)
 Motivational research refers to why people behave as they do

is mainly concerned with market characteristics
13
1.1 Research Basics

3. Research is equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking answers to
various social problems.
It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few

things just for the sake of knowledge and also has
practical utility for the social scientist to know for the
sake of being able to do something better or in a more
efficient manner.
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1.1 Research Basics
4. In addition,
 careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure(students)
 source of livelihood(research professionals)
 the outlet for new ideas and insights(philosophers and
thinkers)
 the development of new styles and creative work(literary men
and women)
 the generalizations of new theories(analysts and intellectuals)
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1.1 Research Basics
 Conclusion
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines
for solving different business, governmental and social
problems.
It is a sort of formal training which enables one to

understand the new developments in one’s field in a better
way.
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.5 Motivation for Research

 What makes people to undertake research?
 Desire to get a research degree along with its

consequential benefits
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved

problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Desire to be of service to society
 Desire to get respectability

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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.6 Managerial Value of Research

 The key function of management is take decisions and
without help of the research and analysis of present situation
and future forecasting , decisions may not be effective
 So research helps to take right decisions based on which,

management can make intelligent and well informed decisions
 The prime managerial value of business research is that it

reduces uncertainty by providing information that
improves the decision-making process.
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.6 Managerial Value of Research

 The decision making process associated with the development
and implementation of a strategy involves three interrelated
stages.
1. Identifying problems or opportunities
2. Selecting and implementing a course of action
3. Evaluating the course of action
 Business research, by supplying managers with pertinent

information, may play an important role by reducing
managerial uncertainty in each of these stages.
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1.1 Research Basics
1.1.7 Characteristics of Good Research

 Criteria all meet on the common ground of
scientific research
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used
2. The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat
the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings. 20
1.1 Research Basics

 Criteria……
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The
validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the

research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,

has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
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1.1 Research Basics

 the qualities of a good research
 Good research is systematic
 Good research is logical
 Good research is empirical
 Good research is replicable
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Chapter End
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Chapter 2
TYPES OF RESEARCH
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Chapter Contents
 Basic research
 Applied research
 Quantitative research
 Qualitative research
 Exploratory research
 Descriptive research
 Causal research
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Chapter 2: Types of Research
2.1. On the basis of outcome of the research:
 Weather the research makes a general contribution to the

knowledge or tries to solve a particular problem
a. Basic/Fundamental Research: concerned with the
theoretical aspect of research
 Examples
 Relationship between crime and economic status
 Darwin theory of evolution
 Newton’s law of motion
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b. Applied Research: a research aimed at finding a solution for
an immediate problem
 Examples
 The improvement of safety in the work place
 Improving the motivation of employees
 Types of applied research
 Social impact analysis- the impact of increase in employment
opportunities on crime rates, school enrollment on crime rates
 Evaluative research (did it work research)-does new incentive scheme
improve workers’ performance?
 Tools used in applied research:
 needs assessment & social cost benefit analysis
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2.2. On the basis of the purpose of the research (Why

it is conducted)
 Exploratory (pilot survey): is research conducted for a problem

that has not been clearly defined
 Descriptive :is used to describe characteristics of a population or

phenomenon being studied.
 Explanatory (analytical): case study, tracer study :Causal

research, also called explanatory research. is the investigation of
(research into) cause-and-effect relationships.
 Predictive: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes
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2.3. On the basis of process of research: on the basis

of data used in the process of research
 Qualitative :examine the why and how of decision making using

words or figures
 Quantitative: is the systematic empirical investigation of

observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques
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2.4. On the basis of the environment in which the

research is carried out
 Field research: Field research or fieldwork is the collection of

information outside a laboratory, library or workplace setting.
 Laboratory research
 Simulation Research: Simulation is the imitation of the operation

of a real-world process or system over time.
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2.5. On the basis of time required to complete research

work
 Cross- sectional :a cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-

sectional analysis, transversal study, prevalence study) is a type of
observational study that analyses data collected from a population, or
a representative subset, at a specific point in time—that is, cross-
sectional data.
 Longitudinal : A longitudinal study is an observational research

method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly
over a period of time. Longitudinal research projects can extend
over years or even decades.
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Chapter End
The Research Process
CHAPTER 3-9
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The Systematic Process of Research (Brief)
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3.1. Formulating the research problem
3.1.1. Recognizing a Research Problem
 There are two types of research problems
a. those which relate to states of nature
b. those which relate to relationships between variables
 At the very outset, the researcher must single out the

problem he/she wants to study
 he/she must decide the general area of interest or

aspect of a subject-matter that he/she would like to
inquire into
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3.1 Formulating the research problem
3.1.1 Recognizing a Research Problem
 A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so

that it becomes susceptible to research
 Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms concerning a problem before he can diagnose
correctly
 Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the

research problem
 understanding the problem thoroughly(discuss with one’s own
colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter)
 rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
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3.1.2 Defining the Research Problem
 In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be

that of selecting and properly defining a research problem
 A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher

experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution
 Conditions for a research problems to exist

 There must be an individual (or a group or an organization) facing the
difficulty
 There must be means/ courses of action
 There must be objectives/ possible outcomes to obtained
 There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher
 The courses of action available must provide some chance of obtaining the
objective
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 Need for defining a research problem
A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved
 The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for

that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones
 A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher

to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create
hurdles
 Find answers to the questions & no doubt crop up in the mind of

researcher
 Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any

study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation
of a problem is often more essential than its solution 38
 Guidelines for the statement of the problem
 Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a
crucial part of a research study and must in no case be
accomplished hurriedly
 However, in practice this frequently overlooked which
causes a lot of problems later on
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Guidelines for the statement of the problem
The technique for defining research problem involves the following 5
steps:
1 2 3
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3.1.3 Sources of Research Problem

“How do I find a research problem?”
 Although there are no set rules for locating a problem
 Three important sources
 Experience
 deductions from theory
 related literature
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 Experience
 Among the most fruitful sources for beginning researchers are
their own experiences as practitioners
 Theory
 Theories are a good source of problems for research
 Which theories: characteristics of good theory?
o Testable
o Falsifiable
o with some significant phenomenon or behavior that needs
explanation
o provides the simplest, clearest, and most plausible explanation for
the phenomenon
o has internal consistency; its propositions do not contradict one
another 42

 Related literature
 Another valuable source of problems is the published

literature in your area of interest
 A review of related literature may help in the following

ways:
o You may find a study that needs to be replicated
o You may find a question that represents the next logical

step in the research on a problem
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3.2 Formulating the research Questions
3.2 Formulating research questions

 Research question simply means putting research
objectives in question form
 Criteria of good research question
 What aspect of the more general topic you will explore?
 Is your research question clear?
 Is your research question focused?
 Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the
space available
 Is your research question complex?
 Questions shouldn’t have a simple yes/no answer and should require
research and analysis
 Ask open-ended “how” and “why” questions
 Consider the “so what” of your topic
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3.2 Formulating the research Questions
3.2. Formulating research questions

 Is your research question clear?
 Why are social networking sites harmful?
 How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on
social networking sites like MySpace and Face book?
 Is your research question focused?
 What is the effect on the environment from global
warming?
 How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?
 Is your research question complex?
 How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?
 What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in
America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the
medical community in prevention of the disease?
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3.3. Formulating the research hypothesis
Formulating a research hypothesis

 Ordinarily, hypothesis means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved
 But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question
that he intends to resolve/answer
 Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive
statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some
dependent variable
 Examples:
 Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in
creativity than students not receiving counseling
 The automobile A is performing as well as automobile B
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 Characteristics of hypothesis: hypothesis should (be):
 clear and precise: otherwise inference will not be reliable
 capable of being tested
 state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a
relational hypothesis
 limited in scope and must be specific
 stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned
 consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent
with a substantial body of established facts
 amenable to testing within a reasonable time
 explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation:
empirical reference, deduce original problem
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 Basic Concepts
 Null hypothesis(Ho) and alternative hypothesis(Ha)
 Null hypothesis is the hypothesis initially supposed
where as alternative hypothesis is the set of
alternatives to the null hypothesis
 If we are to compare method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both
methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as
the null hypothesis
 As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or
the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as
alternative hypothesis
 The Ho is to be disprove while Ha to be prove and both select before
sample is drawn
 Ho should always be specific, shouldn't state about or approximation
48

 Basic Concepts
 The level of significance
 Significance level is the maximum value of the probability of
rejecting H0 when it is true
 the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is
willing to take as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true
 Type I() and Type II() errors
 Type I error
 reject H0 when H0 is true
 error means rejection of hypothesis which should have been accepted
 Type II error
 accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true
 accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.
49

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and one-tailed tests
 A two-tailed test is appropriate when the null
hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative
hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of
the null hypothesis
 A two-tailed test will test both if the sample mean is
significantly greater than given value x and if the mean
significantly less than x.
 there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the
curve
 If 5% significance level in the two-tailed test is to be
applied, the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05
50

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and One-tailed tests
 One-tailed test is appropriate when we are to test, say,

whether the population mean is either lower than or
higher than some hypothesized value
 A one-tailed test will test either if the mean is

significantly greater than x or if the mean is significantly
less than x, but not both.
51

 Basic Concepts
 Two-tailed and One-tailed tests
52
 Process of testing a hypothesis
1. Making a formal statement: clearly state H0 & Ha
2. Selecting a significance level:
 Pre-determined (1% or 5%, 10%)
 Factors; magnitude of difference in means, sample size,

variability of measurements within sample, directional or
non-directional hypothesis.
 Must be adequate in the context of purpose and nature of

enquiry
53
3. Deciding the distribution to use:
Determining appropriate sampling distribution
Choice is between normal or t-distribution
4.Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:
draw sample to furnish empirical data
5. Calculation of the probability
Sample result would diverge as widely as from expectation, if H 0 is

trues
6. Comparing the probability

 P-value ≤ α (one-tailed test) and (α/2 for two-tailed test= reject H 0, if p-value >
α, accept H0,
54
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3.4. Reviewing related literature
3.4.1. Extensive literature survey
 Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down
 For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and

published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to
 Academic journals, conference proceedings, government

reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the
nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another
56
3.4.2 What Is a Literature Review?
 Reviewing the literature is not a compartmentalized stage

of research. Instead, the researcher constantly reviews the
literature until the day the project is submitted
 It is a critical, analytical summary and synthesis of the

current knowledge of a topic
 It should compare and relate different theories, findings,

etc, rather than just summarize them individually
 It should have a particular focus or theme to organize the

review
57
What Is a Literature Review?
 It should discuss all the significant academic literature

important for that focus
 It should not be a chronological listing of previous work,
 Literature reviews are organized thematically based on:
 Different theoretical approaches,
 Methodologies, or specific issues or concepts involved in the topic
58
3.4.3. Types of literature
 the conceptual literature concerning the concepts and
theories
 the empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier
which are similar to the one proposed
59
3.4.4. Advantages of Literature Review
 Focus and clarify our research problem
 To avoid duplications
 To give credit for those who have laid the foundation for the field of
study
 Assist in identifying ‘gaps’ in research
 To define the boundaries of our field of research
 Assist in the choice of the approaches, methods, procedures and
instruments to be used
 highlight the key debates, terms and concepts employed your topic
area
 To learn from the successes and failures of others
Important saying explained as “a wise man learns from the failures
of others, whereas, a foolish man learns from his own failures.”
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3.4.5 Problems of Literature Review
 Lack of organization or structure: literature has to have a format and
organization.
 Lack of focus and coherent: do not diffuse issues; rather try to focus on major
problems.
 Is being repetitive and verbose: don’t use many words unnecessary;
sometimes it is a tendency to hide weaknesses.
 Failing to cite influential papers: missing to cite those papers that contribute
much in field.
 Failing to keep up recent documents: citing old literatures
 Failing to critically evaluate cited papers: failing to explain, interpret and
comment on
 Citing irrelevant or trivial references: citing literatures of little value rather
than those have major contribution to the problem. Example, News papers,
magazines etc.
 Depending too much on secondary sources: usually a tendency of citing a
citation of citation. We usually cite some body as cited in some body. But it is not
totally prohibited; do not use over and over again.
61
3.4.6. Processes in reviewing literature
 Identifying the relevant literature: in identifying the
relevant literature find/compile the key words of the topic or
the problem.
 Read the literature: the following steps can help you to
decide what to read.
 Check for the preliminary sources such as indices, dissertations,
abstracts, encyclopedia, articles, journals, books, etc.
 Prepare a bibliography of primary and secondary sources
 Read the sources by taking paraphrased notes – writing notes on
your own words
 Avoid the use of many quotations and plagiarisms
 Select the grain from the chaff/joke/make fun
 analyzing and interpreting the notes from different
literatures
62
3.4.7 Organization of the literature review
 The specific organization of a literature review depends on the
type and purpose of the review, as well as on the specific
field or topic being reviewed. But in general, it is a
relatively brief but thorough exploration of past and current
work on a topic.
 There are three components in the organization of the
literature review.
1. Introduction:
 Is a general review or statement helping the reader to enter discussion.
 define and identify the general issues to provide the context for the review;
 point out over all trends, conflicts in theory, methodology, evidences,
conclusions, gaps, etc;
 establish the reviewers point of view for reviewing the literature;
 Explain the criteria for analysis, comparison, organization and sequence,
63
Organization of the literature review
2. Body:
In this component the literature review, we can group literatures in to three ways.
 Review of books, theoretical articles and case-studies: is one way of categorizing the
body of the literature review. Books, articles and case-studies are grouped together with their
respective categories.
 Qualitative and quantitative categorization: this can be done based on the methodologies
for the purpose of comparing them and for selecting the most appropriate methodology and
method which suits to our problem under investigation.
 Grouping by conclusions, objectives and chronology:
 This involves grouping literature those have similar conclusions and objectives together for
comparisons and criticisms of each of them.
 Chronology is also very important to show some events within certain periods.
3. Conclusions:
 Summarize major contributions of significant studies in line with our interest,
 It is very important to indicate what methods had been used to achieve the purpose and what
conclusions had been drawn.
 Evaluate the current knowledge reviewed pointing of flaws, gaps and inconsistencies.
64
3.4.8. Referencing
 Bibliography & in text citation
 Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc.,
consulted, should also be given in the end
 APA & Harvard styles
 Show quick references
65
3.5. Designing research
3.5.1. Meaning of research design
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study
 is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a

manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
 is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it

constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis
of data
 Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span
the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection and analysis
66
 Meaning of research design
 the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
67
Meaning of research design
 the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do

from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to
the final analysis of data
 the important features of a research design
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

gathering and analyzing the data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are
done under these two constraints.
68
 Decision to select research design should be the
worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the
study; procedures of inquiry (called strategies); and
specific methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.
 The selection of a research design is also based on the
nature of the research problem or issue being
addressed, the researchers’ personal experiences, and
the audiences for the study.
69
Meaning of research design
 Overall research design can be spitted into the following parts:
 The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting

items to be observed for the given study;
 The observational design which relates to the conditions under

which the observations are to be made;
 The statistical design which concerns with the question of how

many items are to be observed and how the information and data
gathered are to be analyzed; and
 The operational design which deals with the techniques by which

the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be carried out.
70
3.5.2. Need for research design
 facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations
 advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting

the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their
analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money
 as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,

we need a blueprint well thought out and prepared by an expert
architect
71
Need for research design
 has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived
at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire
edifice of the research work
 helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form
whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies
72
3.5.3.Features of a good design
 characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient

and economical
 minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data

collected and analyzed is considered a good design.
 gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the

best design in many investigations
 yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for

considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems
73
Features of a good design
 A research design appropriate for a particular research

problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
 the means of obtaining information;
 the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff
 the objective of the problem to be studied;
 the nature of the problem to be studied; and
 the availability of time and money for the research work;
 Hence, one single design cannot serve the purpose of all
types of research problems.
74
3.5.4. Important concepts
 Dependent and independent variables
 A concept which can take on different quantitative

values is called a variable. e.g. weight, height, income
 Dependent variable: variable depends upon or is a

consequence of the other variable
 Independent variable: variable that is antecedent to the

dependent variable
 For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable and age is an independent variable
75
Important concepts
 Discrete and continuous variables
 Qualitative phenomena can be quantified
 Continuous variables: phenomena which can take on

quantitatively different values even in decimal points
 Discrete variables: phenomena expressed in integer

values
 Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of

children is an example of non-continuous variable
76
Important concepts
 Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the
purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable
 Example: In a relationship b/n children’s gains in social studies

achievement and their self-concepts, intelligence may affect social
studies achievement
 Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a

result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error’.
 A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the

dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent
variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.
77
Important concepts
 Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable

is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s),
the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables.
 Experimental and control group
 Control group: when a group is exposed to usual conditions
 Experimental group: when the group is exposed to some

novel or special condition
78
 Research in which the independent variable
is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’
 a research in which an independent variable is
not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research
79
3.5.5 Different research designs
1. research design in case of exploratory research
studies
2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic
research studies
3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing
research studies
80
Different research designs
 Research design in case of exploratory research studies

 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of
ideas and insights
 the research design appropriate for such studies must be

flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study
 Generally, the following three methods in the context of

research design: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b)
the experience survey and(c) the analysis of ‘insight-
stimulating’ examples.
81
 Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic

research studies
 From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as
well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and
grouped together
 Since the aim in these researches is to obtain complete and
accurate information, the procedure to be used must be carefully
planned
 The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximize reliability, with due concern for
the economical completion of the research study
 The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible
82
 research design in case of hypothesis-testing research

studies/experimental
 Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about
causality
 Hence, the research design in such studies means the design of

experiments.
 Today, the experimental designs are being used in researches

relating to phenomena of several disciplines originated in the
context of agricultural operations
83
 Generally, there are 3 type of research designs(Creswell, 2008)
 Qualitative
 Quantitative
 Mixed research designs
 These three types of designs are advanced.
 Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be viewed
as polar opposites or dichotomies; instead, they represent
different ends on a continuum.
 A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice
versa.
 Mixed methods research resides in the middle of this
continuum because it incorporates elements of both qualitative
and quantitative approaches.
84
 It is primarily exploratory research.
 It is used to gain an understanding of underlying
reasons, opinions, and motivations.
 It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop
ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
 is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions,
and dive deeper into the problem.
 Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
 The sample size is typically small, and respondents are
selected to fulfil a given quota.
85
 is used to quantify the problem by way of
generating numerical data or data that can be
transformed into usable statistics.
 It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other defined variables – and
generalize results from a larger sample
population.
 It uses measurable data to formulate facts and
uncover patterns in research.
 Quantitative data collection methods are much
more structured than Qualitative data
collection methods.
86
3.6 Collecting Data
3.6.1. Develop data collection instruments
 The technique of developing measurement tools involves
a four-stage process, consisting of the following:
 Concept development
 Specification of concept dimensions
 Selection of indicators
 Formation of index
87
3.6 Collecting Data
Develop data collection instruments
 Concept development
 understanding of the major concepts pertaining to his study
 Specification of concept dimensions
 by deduction i.e., by adopting a more or less intuitive

approach or
 by empirical correlation of the individual dimensions with the

total concept and/or the other concepts
88
3.6 Collecting Data
Develop data collection instruments
 Selection of indicators
 Once the dimensions of a concept have been specified, the
researcher must develop indicators for measuring each
concept element
 Indicators are specific questions, scales, or other devices
by which respondent’s knowledge, opinion, expectation,
etc., are measured
 Formation of index
 Combining several dimensions of a concept or different
measurements into a single index
 One simple way for getting an overall index is to provide
scale values to the responses and then sum up the
corresponding scores
89
3.6 Collecting Data
3.6.2. Collecting data
 Two types of data
 Primary data: those which are collected afresh and for the
first time, and thus happen to be original in character
 Secondary data: those which have already been collected
by some one else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process
90
3.6 Collecting Data
Collecting data
 Collecting primary data
 Common methods of collecting primary data
 Observation method
 Interview method
 Questionnaires
91
3.6 Collecting Data
 a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation
is not scientific observation
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data

collection for the researcher when:
 it serves a formulated research purpose
 is systematically planned and recorded and
 is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
 The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in

studies relating to behavioral sciences
92
3.6 Collecting Data
 Advantages:
 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately
 the information obtained under this method relates to what is

currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past
behavior or future intentions or attitudes
 This method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond

and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents (subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or
the other)
93
3.6 Collecting Data
 Disadvantages/limitations
 it is an expensive method
 the information provided by this method is very limited
 sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational

task
 While using this method, the researcher should keep in
mind things like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded?
 How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
94
3.6 Collecting Data
 Classification of observation: based on the degree of

participation of the observer
 Complete participant
 The researchers are members of the group, and no one

in the group is aware of the fact that they are also an
observer
 While this might allow a true “insider’s” view, it raises

ethical concerns because, in essence, researcher are
deceiving the participants
95
3.6 Collecting Data
 Participant as observer
 The researchers are active member of the group and

actively participate in the group’s activities and
interactions, but each member of the group knows that
researchers are also serving a research role
 In essence, a collaborative relationship is developed

between the observer and the participants
 Although this removes the ethical concerns presented

by being a complete observer, researchers may
compromise the natural interaction of the group.
96
3.6 Collecting Data
 Observer as participant
 Choosing to be an observer as participant removes the
researcher a bit from group membership
 Although researchers certainly still have a connection to
the group, they will not likely participate in the group’s
activities.
 Complete observer
 The researchers might conduct their observations from
behind a one-way mirror or in a public setting
 They are not a member of the group and do not
participate in the group’s activities
97
3.6 Collecting Data
 The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses
 The interview can be
 personal interviews or
 telephone interviews
98
3.6 Collecting Data
 Personal interviews
 Personal interview method requires the interviewer

asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to
the other person or persons
 At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions

and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the
interviewer initiates the interview and collects the
information
99
3.6 Collecting Data
 Advantages/merits
 More information and greater depth can be obtained
 Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any
 Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
 Greater flexibility to restructure questions specially in case of unstructured
interviews
 Personal information can as well be obtained easily
 The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions
 The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used
 The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be
avoided
 The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.
100
3.6 Collecting Data
 Disadvantages/demerits
 It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample
 Possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; the
headache of supervision and control of interviewers
 Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or
people in high income groups may not be easily approachable
 The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the
respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary
information just to make the interview interesting
 Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors
 Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that
would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult
requirement.
101
3.6 Collecting Data
 Telephone interview
 This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself
 It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions
 Chief merits
 It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
 It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining
information
 It is cheaper than personal interviewing method
 A higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method
102
3.6 Collecting Data
 Chief merits
 Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to
respondents
 Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
 At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot
be contacted for one reason or the other.
 No field staff is required.
 Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
103
3.6 Collecting Data
 Demerits
 Little time is given to respondents for considered answers
 Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone
facilities
 It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive
answers are required to various questions
 Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more
 Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult
to handle
104
3.6 Collecting Data
 Types of interview questions:
 Structured interviews
 Involve the use of a set of predetermined questions
and of highly standardized techniques of recording
 the interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down,
asking questions in a form and order prescribed
105
3.6 Collecting Data
 Unstructured interviews
 characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning
 do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and

standardized techniques of recording information
 the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in

case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may
omit certain questions if the situation so requires or even
change the sequence of questions.
106
3.6 Collecting Data
 Questionnaires
 quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being
adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and
public organizations and even by governments
 a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire
 most extensively employed in various economic and business
surveys
107
3.6 Collecting Data
 Questionnaires
 The merits
 There is low cost even when the universe is large and is
widely spread geographically.
 It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are
in respondents’ own words.
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought
out answers.
 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also
be reached conveniently.
 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results
can be made more dependable and reliable
108
3.6 Collecting Data
 Questionnaires
 The main demerits
 Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to
no-response is often indeterminate.
 It can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
 The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
 There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending
the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.
 There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of
replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions
is difficult.
 It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly
representative.
 This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
109
3.6 Collecting Data
 Questionnaires
 Types of questionnaires
 Open ended
 Closed ended
 Mixed
110
3.6 Collecting Data
 Collecting secondary data
 Secondary data means data that are already available
 they refer to the data which have already been collected and
analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary
data, then he/she has to look into various sources
 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in:
 various publications of the central, state are local governments;
 various publications of foreign governments or of international

bodies and their subsidiary organizations;
 technical and trade journals;
 books, magazines and newspapers; 111

3.6 Collecting Data
 Secondary data means data that are already available
 reports and publications of various associations connected with

business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;
 reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists,

etc. indifferent fields; and
 public records and statistics, historical documents, and other

sources of published information
The sources of unpublished data are many;
 they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and

autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other
public/private individuals and organizations. 112
3.6 Collecting Data
Collecting data
 Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.

He/she must make a minute scrutiny because it is just
possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may
be inadequate in the context of the problem which the
researcher wants to study.
 “It is never safe to take published statistics at their face

value without knowing their meaning and limitations and it
is always necessary to criticize arguments that can be
based on them”, Bowley, 113
3.6 Collecting Data
Collecting data

 Te researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:
 Reliability of data:
(a) who collected the data?
(b) What were the sources of data?
(c) Were they collected by using proper methods
(d) at what time were they collected?
(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

114
3.6 Collecting Data
Collecting data

 Suitability of data
 The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be
found suitable in another enquiry.
 In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize the

definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time
of collecting the data from the primary source originally.
 Similarly, the objective, scope and nature of the original enquiry

must also be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these,
the data will remain unsuitable for the present enquiry and should
not be used.
115
3.6 Collecting Data
Collecting data
 Adequacy of data
 The already available data should be used by the researcher only when
he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But he should not blindly
discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic
sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be
economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting
information.
 If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate
and should not be used by the researcher
 The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an
area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the
present enquiry
 From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available
data
116
3.7. Analyzing data
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
where the unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis:
 establishment of categories,
 the application of these categories to raw data through coding, editing,
tabulation
 drawing statistical inferences
 Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and
usable categories
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted
 Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data
are put in the form of tables
117
3.7. Analyzing data
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by
applying various well defined statistical formulae
 In the process of analysis, relationships or differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with
what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s)
 In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the
help of various statistical measures 118

3.8 Interpretation & reporting
 Generalizations and interpretation
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may

be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization,
i.e., to build a theory
 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its

ability to arrive at certain generalizations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might

seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It
is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation
may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn
may lead to further researches.
119
 Preparation of the report or the thesis
 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what

has been done. Writing of report must be done with great
care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the

preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.
 In its preliminary pages, the report should carry:
 title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword
 a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of

graphs and charts, if any, given in the report
120
 The main text of the report should have the following parts:
 Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with
various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
 Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical
language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.
 Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
 Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In
fact, it is the final summing up.
 At the end of the report, bibliography & appendices should be
enlisted in respect of all technical data.
121
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in

simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used

only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the

various constraints experienced in conducting research
operations may as well be stated
122
Developing a Research
Proposal
123
4
Developing a Research Proposal
1. The purpose of Research Proposal
2. Structure of a Proposal
 Preliminary
 Body of the Proposal
 Supplemental
3. Develop Research Proposal

1. The purpose of Research proposal
 The research proposal is the document that finally establishes that there
is a niche for your chosen area of study and that the research design is
feasible.
 The purpose of the proposal is to help you (as student) to focus and
define your research plans.
 These plans are not binding, in that they may well change substantially
as you progress in the research.
 However, they are an indication to your faculty of your direction and
discipline as a researcher.
 They also help you to prepare your application to the Ethics Committee.
125
1. The purpose of Research proposal
The proposal is expected to:
Show that you are engaging in genuine enquiry, finding out

about something worthwhile in a particular context;
Link your proposed work with the work of others, while proving
you are acquainted with major schools of thought relevant to the
topic;
Establish a particular theoretical orientation;
Establish your methodological approach, and

126
2. Structure of a proposal
a. Preliminary
127
4.2.1. Cover/Title Page
Identifies topic, writer, institution, degree, address,

month & year
Title of the research should appeal to the approver or

should be the knowledge/competent area and interest
of the researcher.
proposed research title (should be descriptive of
focus, concise, eye-catching and preferably use key
words from the international information retrieval
systems)
128
4.2.2. Summary/Abstract
The theme area of the research including
methodology, statement of the problem and other
relevant items will be concisely stated in half to one
page about the proposal.
In research proposal development abstract is
optional. 129
Table of Content
After accomplishment of research proposal writing

table of content which comprises title and page
number can be developed manually or automatically
from the computer references menu
lists sections of proposal and page references use a
hierarchy for titles and subtitles
use the numbering system as follows: 1; 1.1, 1.2...;
1.1.1 etc.)
130
b. Body of the Proposal
131
1. Background of the Study
It is the starting point for the researcher in addressing

general facts empirically or supported by theory with regard
to the topic under study;
The study addresses here usually what existing theories if

any explain about the selected research area and what it
looks like globally, regionally, similar country experience, at
national/country level, local, industry level and finally the
unit of analysis depending on the type of the research
design.
132
Background of the Study
Provides background information relating to the

social/political/historical/ educational (etc.) context
of the study
May include personal motivation
133
The most frequently observed weakness here is

failure to state background of the study and to
acknowledge the source for empirical facts even if
known to the public as true or accepted.
A researcher, with objective of adding new knowledge

after findings of the study on the existing knowledge
must properly cite previous authors work and empirical
facts’ source 134
Sometimes researchers ignore to state anything

about their research topic and proceed to statement
of the problem without saying a word in the
background of the study.
Finally, it is should be observed in background of

the study that paragraph settings are made in line
with Deductivism or Inductivism approach
135
2. Statement of the Problem
Follows from background to persuade the reader
that the study is needed and will be
useful/interesting;
May include reference to a ‘gap’ in the research
literature, to the need to apply certain ideas in a new
context, or to the significance of your particular topic
When research problem is stated (statement of the
problem), the researcher should clearly indicate the
gap (theoretical or empirical) that has to be
approached theoretically and/or empirically;
136
Statement of the Problem
 Conditions for a research problems to exist

o There must be an individual (or a group or an organization)
facing the difficulty
o There must be means/ courses of action
o There must be objectives/ possible outcomes to obtained
o There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher
o The courses of action available must provide some chance

of obtaining the objective
137
Criteria to be considered in selecting research

problem
 Subject which is overdone should not be

normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
 Controversial subject should not become the

choice of an average researcher;
138
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be
avoided;
 The subject selected for research should be

familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s
reach.
 The importance of the subject, the qualifications
and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor
139
In other words, before the final selection of a
problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the
following questions:
 Whether he/she is well equipped in terms of his
background to carry out the research?
 Whether the study falls within the budget he/she can

afford?
 Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from

those who must participate in research as subjects?
140
A researcher may be initiated by the existence of

symptoms in the organization and hence investigate
the real problem through empirical research in the
organization.
o For example, a 20% employee turnover in a year in a
given service organization is an indicator for the existence
of a problem (symptom),
 Answers the WHY question is the real problem

141
Most of the time and experiences show that failure to clearly
articulate the research problem will affect the researcher’s
activities in a number of ways.
 Objectives cannot be clearly stated
 Difficult to raise research questions from the problem, and
 Research design will be affected
 Therefore, one has to clearly state the research problem

which will smooth the next steps in the research activities.
142
3. Research Objectives
States clearly and succinctly the purpose of the study
Outlines the key aims
Expressed in terms of the broader context of the study
Can be categorized in to two: general and specific objectives

 The general objective of the study emanates from the research title
indicated by the researcher
 Specific objectives should most of the time match research questions

raised
143
4. Research Questions/Hypothesis
After research problem statement, the researcher’s job is , with the
help of previous preliminary literature review , to define research
questions ,which have to be drawn from the statement of the problem to
be raised in WH questions.
Research questions are stated for new research areas where it is

difficult to hypothesize the relationship between variables.
“What” type of research questions are made for descriptive type of

research design where as “how and why” questions are mostly raised to
explain the variables (explanatory research design).
144
Research Questions/Hypothesis
Hypothesis is an educated guess before the data collection
about the problem.
It is an educated guess because hypothesis is literally derived

from previous literatures which were empirically tested on similar
units of analysis by previous researchers.
Hypothesis formulation is made after a careful review of

literature review which will help to describe, explain and predict
the relationship between variables.
145
Research Questions/Hypothesis
The job of the researcher is to formulate a temporal solution
based on the previous research findings with the assumption of
the same behavior of the current units of analysis’ problem;
A formulated hypothesis will later be tested to refute the null

hypothesis, which will ultimately be interpreted as a successful
guess of the solution to the research problem if null hypothesis is
refuted.
146
5. Significance of the Research

The researcher should convince his/her research advisor or the
funding organization, the reason why he /she has to conduct the
research in that particular area and cost of doing the research must
be justified by its utility to the user of the research findings.
Beneficiaries of the research output:
 Student-for academic course fulfillment
 Organization- Unit of Analysis on which the problem was identified
and research was made(especially empirical research)
 Scientific community-for further improvement and in depth the
investigation or testing the findings for replication to increase its
reliability for theory building.
147
6. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
Limitation of the study is emanated from:
 non availability of data from crucial research participants,
 non availability of adequate empirical research outputs ,
 non availability of correct research instrument to measure the

variables, small sample size, etc
affect internal validity and generalizability of the research result.
148
Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
One cannot deny, the critical resources influence over the validity
of any research carried out by researchers all over the world (time
and finance)
 the researcher should indicate possible barriers that may

hinder him/her from, for example to collect data, not
securing cooperation of very important research participants
whose exclusion may affect the validity of research output,
and so on.
149
Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
Delimitation is also made to time coverage and as well
to certain particular industry type, case or any unit of
analysis.
Delimitation is the issue of scope of the study
It is setting the boundary for your research

investigation, usually defined by its population.
It affects generalizability of research findings.
150
7. Literature Review
Preliminary literature review is to reevaluate previous authors’
work on similar title and organization, industry, country, case or
units of analysis.
 This is not expected to be extensive for the proposal
 You should conduct an initial survey of the main theorists and a library
information search to establish your directions
This will help the research to develop hypothesis for the study to
be tested empirically.
151
Literature Review
shows your supervisor and Faculty that you are aware of
significant writers/researchers in the field, and indicates which
issues/topics you will focus on in your review (this may change
later)
Situates your own research within the field
You should demonstrate critical analysis
Your review should be shaped by your argument and should seek

to establish your theoretical orientation
152
Literature Review
Sources or works of previous authors should be properly quoted,
even if the statement may be known fact. Failure to state so is
plagiarism.
153
8. Research Design and methodology
it is a blue print that will guide him/her, when the proposal gets
approval from the authorized body for actual investigation of the
research problem;
Outlines and describes the research plans – ways in which it will

be conducted
Includes description of and rationale for selection of participants,

methods of data collection and analysis, procedures you will use to
ensure ethical practice, validity and reliability
154
Study area
 This is where the researcher selects the actual area

of problem investigation.
 Most applied researches consider the place where the

actual research problem be observed for
investigation.
155
Study/Research design
 Research design guides the researcher after proposal approval
 Any amendment to the actual research investigation will affect

the research deign and the researcher has to get advice from
the advisor before changing actual research problem
investigation that deviates from the previous research design.
 The type of the research design to be selected by the

researcher depends on his/her intention in a way to address the
phenomena.
156
 For example , the researcher may be interested to describe the

research phenomena-hence descriptive research design will be
used and its statistical analysis will be done based on mean and
standard deviation about the observation of the phenomena(the
what analysis).
 The researcher may be interested on the same topic with the

previous researcher, but want to explain (explanatory research
design) will be used.
157
 Therefore the type of the research design to be adopted in

any research undertakings, either:
 qualitative or quantitative or mixed,
cross-sectional or longitudinal,
exploratory or explanatory,
case method or survey method,
ethnographic or phenomenological,
experimental or quasi experimental,
field research or laboratory
158
Study subjects/research participants
Research participants are those respondents from whom
relevant facts can be gathered to solve the problems.
Participant selection must carefully be thought by the
researcher in incorporating them in the study.
159
Sample size and Sampling methods
The issue of sample size and sampling methods are very

important elements in research methodology as these
determine who will be included or excluded from
participating in the study and their number.
Careful selection of sample size and technique enhances

the reliability of research findings.
Before sample size determination, knowledge of the

population (correct definition of population is imperative.)
160
After population definition, source of population (finite or

infinite) should be identified.
This will help the researcher to determine or statistically

estimate the sample size for the research.
As a rule of thumb, large population size and non

availability of population parameters to determine statistical
sample size, researchers usually assume at least 10% of the
population is adequate to be represented in the sample.
161
The researcher must convince the reader why he/she has

selected a certain portion of the population for representativeness.
For a population size of 100 or less in most researches, we can

find the sample size is the total population.
In principle, sample size should be large enough to carry

statistical analysis.
162
After sample size determination how to pick research

participants to engage them in the study from the total population
is sampling technique/method.
Whether probabilistic or non probabilistic method is applied to

select the sample respondents depends on the nature of the
population and the researcher’s capacity to access to the
participants.
Any sampling method selected must be justified by the

researcher of its validity.
163
Data collection/instruments & sources and Research
 The methods of data collection including the sources affect
the validity of the research output.
 common research instruments- questionnaire, interview,
observation and focus group discussion
 The research instrument selected by the researcher must
be carefully designed so as to ensure correct responses
from the research participants through careful instrument
design.
 The researcher should carefully learn the appropriate type
of research instrument;
164
Data quality assurance
 Data quality assurance is measured using two parameters.
its internal validity which is instrument validity-using

correct research instrument to accurately measure the
variable during the data collection procedures
Data consistency must also be checked using reliability

test (Cronbach’s alpha of acceptable level, say greater
than 70%).
165
Operational definitions
 Any variable used in the study should be defined

contextually in an objectively measurable way so as to
avoid misunderstanding between the author and
replicators or readers of the research results.
166
Plan of data analysis
This plan of data analysis depends on the research design

selected by a researcher.
For example, a researcher may follow a qualitative research

design and hence make content analysis.
On the other hand, the researcher may select explanatory

research design and use statistical analysis of regression.
167
9. Work plan
In research proposal writing the timing of the research

as a project should be indicated with the help of Gantt
Chart or table
the planned start and finish date of the research

including details of activities from the beginning of the
research process to the end and allotted time for each
activity within the given time schedule.
168
3 Supplemental
10. Budget
 The amount of money required to carry out the research

work should be planned for each activities in detail.
11. Bibliography
 Sources used from previous authors in the literature

review or anywhere in the research work must be
acknowledged either quoted word for word or
paraphrased from the author. Any idea taken from
somebody’s work should be given due respect with
proper citation of the author year of publication and date.
169
3 Supplemental
Appendices/Annexes
Any relevant attachment especially questionnaire or other

research instruments should be annexed if deemed
necessary for detail looking.
But one must be careful of indicating in the body of the

proposal that the annex should be referred. For example,
(see appendix “C”)
170
The End
171

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1.1.1 Defining Research

 “systematized effort to gain new knowledge” Redman

 Original & creative intellectual activity carried out in different

1.1.2 Factors stimulating research

1.1.3 Purpose of Studying Research methods

(i) Career of carrying out research

 good training specially to the new research worker and enables

(ii) ability to evaluate and use research results with

1.1.3 Purpose of Studying Research methods

(iii) satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool

 a way of looking at the world and of judging everyday experience.

(iv) helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them

and enables him to take rational decisions

1.1.4 Importance of Research

1.1.4 Importance of Research

1. Research provides the basis for nearly all government

 Budget decision(needs & desires of people and revenues)

 Devise alternative policies and examine their consequences

Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research

1.1.4 Importance of Research

 Crucial and their results assist in taking business

1.1.4 Importance of Research

 Operations research refers to the application of mathematical,

 Motivational research refers to why people behave as they do

1.1.4 Importance of Research

It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few

It is a sort of formal training which enables one to

1.1.5 Motivation for Research

 Desire to get a research degree along with its

 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved

 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work

 Desire to be of service to society

 Desire to get respectability

1.1.6 Managerial Value of Research

 So research helps to take right decisions based on which,

 The prime managerial value of business research is that it

1.1.6 Managerial Value of Research

1. Identifying problems or opportunities

2. Selecting and implementing a course of action

3. Evaluating the course of action

 Business research, by supplying managers with pertinent

1.1.7 Characteristics of Good Research

1.1.7 Characteristics of Good Research

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the

7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,

1.1.7 Characteristics of Good Research

 Good research is systematic

 Good research is logical

 Good research is empirical

 Good research is replicable

2.1. On the basis of outcome of the research:

 Weather the research makes a general contribution to the

b. Applied Research: a research aimed at finding a solution for

2.2. On the basis of the purpose of the research (Why

 Exploratory (pilot survey): is research conducted for a problem

 Descriptive :is used to describe characteristics of a population or

 Explanatory (analytical): case study, tracer study :Causal

 Predictive: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes

2.3. On the basis of process of research: on the basis

 Qualitative :examine the why and how of decision making using

 Quantitative: is the systematic empirical investigation of