Data Collection Method

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 Sources of Data
 Difference between primary and secondary sources.
 Examples of primary and secondary sources.
 Use and importance of primary and secondary source.
 Advantages and limitations of primary and secondary
sources.

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 Data collection methods
Interview
Face to face interview
Telephone interview
Computer -assisted interview
Interview through electronic media
Questionnaires
Personally administered
Sent through the mail
Electronically administered
Observation
With or without audio or video taping
Other motivational techniques
Write a story
Complete a sentence
Offer reactions to ambiguous cues such as inkblots or unlabeled pictures

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 Interviews
Unstructured and structured
Unstructured interviews – interviewer does not
enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of
questions to be asked of the respondent.
Objective- To bring some preliminary issues to the
surface –what variables need further investigation.
In the initial stages, only broad, open ended questions
would be asked in order to know the perceptions of
the individuals.

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 Thus, depth interviews help in the formulation of the
research problem, collect precepts and ideas and to
improve the conceptualization of research questions and
articulation of hypotheses, based on the “Hidden Agenda”
of the researcher. No fixed questions. not be too obvious to
the respondent.

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 Structured Interviews - conducted when it is known what
information is needed.
The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be posed to the
respondents.
The questions are likely to focus on factors that had surfaces during the
unstructured interviews.
The same questions are asked to everybody. Sometimes, however, the
experienced researcher, based on the situation might take a lead from an
answer and ask other relevant questions not on the interview protocol.
At this point of research process, the interviewer does not have the
luxury of initiating new topics, adding new questions, or even following
up interesting ideas.

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 The interviewer must comprehend the purpose and
goal of each question.
Visual aids such as pictures, line drawings, cards, and
other materials are also sometime used in conducting
interviews.
Visual aids also come handy while endeavoring to
elicit certain thoughts and ideas that are difficult to
express or awkward to articulate.

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 Training interviewers
How to start an interview
How to proceed with the questions
How to motivate respondents to answer
What to look for in the answers
How to close an interview
Taking notes and coding the interview responses

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 Some tips
Free from bias
Bias refers to error or inaccuracies in the data collected
Interviewer biases- if proper trust and rapport are not established
with the interviewee
Misinterpreted or distorted responses
Unintentionally encourages or discouraged certain types of responses
through gestures and facial expressions.
Listening attentively
Evincing properly
Repeating and clarifying the questions posted
Paraphrasing some of the answers to ensure their through understanding
Keeping the interest of the respondent alive
Recording the responses accurately

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  Interviewees
When they do not come out with their true opinions
Providing the information according to the personal
likes and dislikes of the interviewer
 Situational
Nonparticipant
Trust levels and rapport established
Physical setting of interview

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  Additional sources of bias in the interview data
Extremely busy or are not in good humor
Strikes, layoffs
Personality of the interviewer
Introductory sentence
Inflection of voice
Sampling biases

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 Establishing credibility and rapport and
motivating individuals to respond
 Professionalism, enthusiasm, and confidence is important for
the interviewer.
 Knowledge, skills, ability, confidence, articulateness, and
enthusiasm
 Put your respondent at ease
 Ensure confidentiality and anonymity
 State the purpose of the interview
 Establish rapport by being pleasant, sincere, sensitive, and no
evaluative
 Evincing a genuine interest in the responses and allaying any
anxieties, fear, suspicions and tensions.

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 The questioning technique
Funneling
The transition from broad to narrow themes is called funneling technique.

Unbiased
Tell me how you experience your job?
Boy, the work you do must be really boring

Clarifying issue
Rephrase important information
“There is an unfair promotion policy in this organization; sinority does not count at all it is the
juniors who always get promoted”.
“so you are saying that juniors always get promoted over the heads of even capable seniors”.

Helping the respondent to think through the issue

Simplify or rephrase the issue

Taking notes
Possible sources of error in recalling that who said what.
Can be recorded in permitted by the respondents
Anonymity issue

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 Face to face and telephonic interview
Depend on the:-
Level of complexity
Likely duration
Convenience of both parties
Geographical area

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 Face to face interview
Advantages
Direct interview-adapt the question as necessary
Clarify doubts
Repeating and rephrasing
Pick up non-verbal cues
Disadvantages
Geographical limitations
Cost
anonymity

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 Telephonic interview
Advantages
Number of different people can be reached
Save time
Eliminate any discomfort
Disadvantages
Unilaterally termination
Caller identification
Daily telemarketing calls

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Computer assisted interview(CAI)
Questions are flashed onto the computer screen and
interviewers can enter the answers of the respondents
directly into the computer.
Features
 Accuracy
 Time saving

 No replication of data

 Indication of Non-Relevant responses

 Prevent from asking wrong questions or in a wrong sequence

 Use for data analysis

 Investment in hardware and software

 Repaid changes in technology

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 Questionnaires
Efficient data collection mechanism when the
researcher knows:-
Exactly what is required and
How to measure the variable of interest
Reformulated written set of questions to which
respondents record their answers.
Personally administered
Mailed
Electronically distributed

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 Personally administered questionnaires
Confined to the local area
Collect all responses within short period of time
Doubts are clarified on the spot, if any.
Introduce the research topic and use
Less expensive
Disinclination of organization to allow work hours to
be spent on data collection.
Anonymity of the organization ?

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 Mail Questionnaire
Wide geographical area can be covered
Respondents can fill at their convenience
Low return rate
Doubts can not be clarified
Follow-up letters
Monetary amount as incentives
Stamped return envelopes
Better response rate if respondents are notified in
advance
Education of the respondents
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Principle of wording
Content and purpose of the questions
Nature of the variable measured – either subjective( i.e.
teaching skills) or objective (i.e. age , gender, salary) in
nature.
Dimensions-elements- questions
Purpose of the each question should be carefully
considered.

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 Language and wording of the questionnaire
According to the level of understanding of the
respondents
Depend on their educational level
Understanding of different cultures
Blue-color workers – organizational structure
i.e. B.Com (hons) Equivalent to M.Com

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Type and form of the questions
Open ended with close ended questions
Which mobile feature do you consider most while purchasing the
new one?
 Respondents can give answer in any way they choose.
Among the following features which do you consider the most
while Purchasing the new mobile phone?
 Camera
 FM radio

 Voice quality

 Attractiveness

 GPRS support

 Others ______

Mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive alternatives

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 Age
Below 20 years
Between 30-40 years
Above 35 years

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 Positively and negatively worded questions
It is advisable to include some negatively worded
questions as well, so the tendency in respondents to
mechanically circle the points toward one end of the
scale is minimized.

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 Double – barreled questions
That lends itself to different possible responses to its sub
parts.
In 2 or more parts.
Excellent time management and communication skills.
Avoid such questions as these will confuse respondents.

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 Ambiguous questions
I feel very comfortable when teacher asks question in
research class.
I understand teacher questions in my research class.
Recall-dependent questions
Don’t bother respondent to recall past questions that are
hazy in his/her memory.
 When your principal called you very first time in the college

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 Leading questions
Pattern of the questions must not lead to any likely
response.
Don’t you think that your accounting teacher is
irregular?
Loaded questions
Phrased in an emotionally charged manner.
To what extent do you think that the boycott of the
paper will pressurize the management of the college.

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 Social desirability
Do you think that older teachers should not be given
lectures?

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 Simple short questions are preferred than the long
questions.
As a rule of thumb, a question are a statement in the
questionnaire should not exceed 20 word, or exceed
one full line in print.(Horst, 1968; Oppenheim, 1986)

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  Sequence of question
 General nature to specific
 Easy to difficult
 Funnel approach
 Positive and negative questions should not be from the
same dimensions.
 Placing two questions, one immediately after the other, is
not only awkward but might also seems insulting the
respondent.
 Not honoring the answers from students
 Honoring the answers from students

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 Demographics or personal information
 Age
 Income
 Marital status
 Educational level
 Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask the
name of the respondent
 Procedure should be clearly explained to the respondent
 Use different sheet for personal information
 Matter of the choice for the researcher – either to ask at
start or at the end
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 General appearance or GET up of the
questionnaire
Attractive and neat
Appropriate introduction
Instructions
Well-arrayed set of questions

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 Good introduction
Identity of the researcher
Purpose o the questionnaire
Motivate the respondent
Assurance of confidentiality
End on a courteous note – thanking the respondent
Example page 245

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Electronic questionnaire design and surveys
Easily designed
Use of software's SPSS
Easy to interpret
Apply tools
Check validity and reliability
Deal with non-responsive items

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 Other methods-observation
Movements
Work habits
Statement made in different conditions
Joy, anger, emotions, body language
Children

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Participant and non-participant observer
Participant observer
Researcher enters the organization or research settings
Become a part of the work team
Attend classes among student
Non-participant observer
Researcher may collect data without becoming a integral
part of the organizational system
Sit in the corner and watch
Physically present on the workplace

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Structured vs unstructured observation
Structured observation
Observer has a predetermined set of categories of
activities or phenomena planned to be studied.
Non-Structured observation
observer has no definite ideas of the particular aspect
that need focus.
Observing events as they take place

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 Advantages of observational studies
More reliable
Free from bias
Up-to-date information
Easier to note the effects of environmental influences
on the specific outcome.
Extremely busy persons, children, politicians

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 Drawbacks
Physically present
Slow and expensive
Tedious
Mood, feeling, expressions can only be guessed
Anonymity

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 Biases in observational study
Recording errors
Memory lapses
Error in interpretation
Inter observer reliability where several observers are
involved

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