Thermodynamics Lesson

Lesson # : Properties of Pure Substance
Thermodynamics (ME 102)

Objective of lesson
Learn to evaluate properties using:
1. Property Tables
2. Ideal Gas equations
Engineering Science Department

Khurram Jamal Hashmi Pakistan Navy Engineering College 1 of 33
National University of Sciences & Technology
Working Substance and Pure Substance
The substance in which energy can be stored or from which energy can be removed is
known as ‘working substance’. If working substance is in form of fluid, it is known as
‘working fluid’.
A substance that is homogenous and has invariable chemical composition is known as

‘pure substance’.
System comprising of pure nitrogen is an example of pure substance. So is the system

comprising of water.
A system consisting of thorough mixture of ice (solid water) and water (liquid) is
considered as pure substance as chemical composition is same in all part of system.
Working Substance and Pure Substance
A system of dry air, which is primarily mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in fixed
proportion, is also a pure substance.
A system of mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance as it is not

homogenous.
Liquefied-air in contact with gaseous-air is not a pure substance as proportion of

oxygen and nitrogen are different in gaseous and liquid phase.
A system involving a chemical process is not a pure substance during the

process as chemical composition is varying.
State Postulate/Two Property Rule
State of a system is set of all properties. Experience shows that all properties are not
required to be determined to specify the state of the system. If some properties are
specified other assume certain value automatically.
Two property rule states “In absence of effects from motion, gravity, electricity, magnetism
and capillarity, state of pure substance can be fixed by two independent, intensive
properties.
A system is said to be simple compressible, when effects from motion, gravity, electricity,
magnetism and capillarity is absent.
The state of simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,

intensive properties (State Postulate).
Phase Change Process of Pure Substance
A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement that

is homogeneous throughout and separated from the others by easily
identifiable boundary surfaces.
Principal phases of pure substance are solid, liquid and gases.

However, pure substance can exist in multiple phases within a
principal phase. Example is of solid carbon which exist as graphite
and diamond.

Isobaric heat addition in water at 100 kPa

Isobaric heat addition in water at 100 kPa

•Compressed Liquid or Sub cooled Liquid

•Saturated Liquid (denoted by subscript f)
•Saturated Vapor (denoted by subscript g)
•Saturated-Liquid vapor mixture
oSaturation Pressure and Temperature
oLatent heat of vaporization
oQuality of vapor (dryness fraction) x = mg / (mg + mf)
•Superheated vapor
•Critical point
•Triple point

Property Diagram : T-v

Property Diagram : P-v

Lesson # 15 : Properties of Pure Substance
Property Diagram : Including Solid Phase

Phase Diagram : P-T

P-v-T surface

Property Tables
Property tables of each substance is divided into three tables:

Saturated Tables
Superheated Tables
Compressed Liquid Tables
Selection of table depends on phase of working fluid.

Property Tables – Phase Determination
If pressure and temperature are given

For given P, if T < Tsat then phase is compressed liquid
For given P, if T = Tsat then phase is saturated phase
For given P, if T > Tsat then phase is superheated vapour
If pressure and temperature are given

For given T, if P < Psat then phase is compressed liquid
For given T, if P = Psat then phase is saturated phase
For given T, if P > Psat then phase is superheated vapour
If pressure/temperature and specific volume/internal energy/enthalpy/entropy are given

For given P/T, if v/u/h/s < vf/uf/hf/sf then phase is compressed liquid
For given P/T, if vf/uf/hf/sf ≤ v/u/h/s ≤ vg/ug/hg/sg then phase is saturated phase
For given P/T, if v/u/h/s > vg/ug/hg/sg then phase is superheated vapour
Property Tables – Property Evalation
In saturated liquid-vapor mixture phase

v = vf + x (vg – vf) = vf + xvfg
u = uf + xufg
h = hf + xhfg
s = sf + xsfg
Approximation for compressed liquid

v ≈ vf at given temperature
u ≈ uf at given temperature
h ≈ hf at given temperature
s ≈ sf at given temperature
If values are not in table they can be interpolated or extrapolated using linear interpolation formula:
y = y1 + (x-x1) [(y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)]
Property Evaluation – Numerical Problem
Problem # 1:
Determine boiling point of water at 1 MPa.
Solution:
At P = 1 MPa, Tsat = 179.88oC (Table A-5, Cengel and Boles)
Problem # 2:
At what pressure will refrigerant R-134a will boil at -10 oC.
Solution:
At T = -10oC, Tsat = 200.74 kPa (Table A-11, Cengel and Boles)
Problem # 3:
Determine pressure, specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for
steam at 100oC and x = 0. (x is quality of vapor)
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of phase: Phase is saturated liquid as x = 0.
Step2: Determination of property

From saturated water table (Table A-4, Cengel and Boles)
P = 101.42 kPa, v = 0.001043 m3/kg, u = 419.06 kJ/kg,
h = 419.17 kJ/kg, s = 1.3702 kJ/kg K
Problem # 4:
Determine temperature, specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for
refrigerant R-134a at 0.5 MPa and x = 1. (x is quality of vapor)
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of phase: Phase is saturated vapor as x = 1.

From saturated water table (Table A-12, Cengel and Boles)
T = 15.71oC, v = 0.0008059 m3/kg, u = 72.93 kJ/kg,
h = 73.33 kJ/kg, s = 0.28023 kJ/kg K
Problem # 5:
Determine specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for steam at 200 kPa and x =
0.8.
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of phase:
Phase is saturated liquid-vapor mixture as 0 < x < 1.
Step2: Determination of property: (properties from Table A-5, Cengel and Boles)
v = vf + x (vg – vf) = 0.001061 + 0.8 (0.88578 – 0.001061) = 0.7088362 m3/kg
u = uf + xufg = 504.5 + 0.8 (2024.6) = 2124.18 kJ/kg
h = hf + xhfg = 504.71 + 0.8 (2201.6) = 2265.91 kJ/kg
s = sf + xsfg = 1.5302 + 0.8 (5.5968) = 6.00764 kJ/kg K
Problem # 6:
Determine enthalpy of steam at 140oC and 5 kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of phase:
At T = 140oC, sf = 1.7392 kJ/kg K and sg = 6.9294 kJ/kg K (Table A-4, Cengel and Boles)
As sf < s < sg phase is saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
Step2: Determination of property: (properties from Table A-4, Cengel and Boles)
x = (s – sf) / sfg = (5 – 1.7392) / 5.1901 = 0.63
h = hf + xhfg = 589.16 + 0.63 (2144.3) = 1940.69 kJ/kg
Problem # 7:
Determine specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy for steam at 200 kPa,
500oC
Solution:
Step 1: Determination of phase
At P = 200 kPa, Tsat = 120.21oC (Table A-5, Cengel and Boles)
As T > Tsat, phase is superheated.

From superheated water table (Table A-6, Cengel and Boles)
v = 1.7842 m3/kg, u = 3131.4 kJ/kg, h = 3487.7 kJ/kg, s = 8.5153 kJ/kg K
Problem # 8:
Determine enthalpy of steam at 200 kPa, 532oC
Solution:
As T > Tsat, phase is superheated.
From superheated water table (Table A-6, Cengel and Boles), evaluation of properties at 532oC
requires interpolation. Using linear interpolation formula:
y = y1 + (x-x1) [(y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)]

h = 3487.7 + (532 – 500) [(3704.8 – 3487.7) / (600 – 500)] = 3557.172 kJ/kg
Problem # 9:
Determine internal energy of water at 500 kPa, 120oC
Solution:
As T < Tsat, phase is compressed liquid (sub cooled liquid).
Compressed water table (Table A-7, Cengel and Boles) starts from P = 5 MPa. Approximation
formula for compressed liquid will be used.
u ≈ uf at given temperature
u = 503.60 kJ/kg (Table A-4, Cengel and Boles)
Ideal Gas
A gas that follows following conditions at all pressure and temperature:

1. Pv = f(T)
2. u = f(T)
No real gas follows this relation at all pressure and temperatures. However,
many gases follow these relation in limited range of pressure and temperature.
Oxygen and nitrogen in atmospheric conditions are good example.
As h = u + Pv, it follows that for ideal gas:

h = f(T)
Ideal Gas – Equation of State
Any relation that relates P, v and T is known as equation of state.
For ideal gas following relations are used

a. PV = NRuT
b. PV = mRT
c. Pv = RT
Where
N is number of moles given by: N = m / M, where M is molar mass (molecular weight)
Ru is universal gas constant and has value of 8314 J/kg K
R is gas constant given by: R = Ru / M; R is a constant for particular gas. It will have different
value for different gases.
Ideal Gas – Specific Heats
For evaluation of changes in internal energy, enthalpy and entropy, specific heat at
constant volume ‘Cv’ and specific heat at constant pressure ‘CP’ are used. The
defining equations are:
Cv = (∂u/∂T)v
CP = (∂h/∂T)P
For ideal gas internal energy and enthalpy are function of temperature only, thus
Cv = du/dT
CP = dh/dT
Ideal Gas – Changes in Internal Energy, Enthalpy and
Entropy
Ideal gases are classified as:

a. Ideal gas with constant specific heats
b. Ideal gas with variable specific heats
For ideal gas with constant specific heats following relations are used:
Δu = Cv,avg(T2 – T1)
Δh = Cp,avg(T2 – T1)
Δs = Cv,avg ln(T2/T1) + R ln(v2/v1) = Cp,avg ln(T2/T1) – R ln(P2/P1)
Where Cv,avg and Cp,avg are evaluated at Tavg = (T2 + T1)/2. Values for few gases at different
temperature are given in Table A-2b and at 300 K in Table A-2a.
Ideal Gas – Changes in Internal Energy, Enthalpy and
Entropy
For ideal gas with variable specific heats following relations are used:
Δu = ∫CvdT
Δh = ∫CpdT
Δs = ∫(Cv/T) dT + R ln(v2/v1) = ∫(CP/T) dT – R ln(P2/P1)
The integration of these relations are not required. Integrated values are given in gas tables (A-
17 to A-25) in text. The applicable format of above equations are:
Δu = u2 – u1
Δh = h2 – h1
Δs = (so2 – so1) – R ln(P2/P1)
Problem # 10:
Determine specific volume of air at 100 kPa, 300 K. Also, determine changes in
internal energy, enthalpy and entropy as air is heated from 100 KPa, 300K to 500
kPa, 1000 K. Treat air as an ideal gas with variable specific heats.
Solution:
v1 = RT1/P1 = 287 (300/100000) = 0.861 m3/kg
Δu = u2 – u1 = 758.94 – 214.07 = 544.87 kJ/kg
Δh = h2 – h1 = 1046.04 – 300.19 = 745.14 kJ/kg
Δs = (so2 – so1) – R ln(P2/P1)
= (2.96770 – 1.70203) – 0.287 ln(500/100) = 0.80376 kJ/kg K
Lesson # 15 : Properties of Pure Substance
Problem # 11:
Determine specific volume of air at 100 kPa, 300 K. Also, determine changes in internal
energy, enthalpy and entropy as air is heated from 100 KPa, 300K to 500 kPa, 1000 K. Treat
air as an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Solution:
v1 = RT1/P1 = 287 (300/100000) = 0.861 m3/kg
Tavg = (300 +1000)/2 = 650 K

Δu = Cv,avg(T2 – T1) = 0.776 (1000 – 300) = 543.2 kJ/kg
Δh = Cp,avg(T2 – T1) = 1.063 (1000 – 300) = 744.1 kJ/kg
Δs = Cp,avg ln(T2/T1) – R ln(P2/P1)
= 1.063 ln(1000/300) – 0.287 ln (500/100) = 0.81791 kJ/kg K
Outcome of Lesson
At the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
1.Define and discuss concept of pure substance.

2.State and explain State Postulate (Two Property Rule)
3.Discuss phase change process with help of property
diagram.
4.Evaluate temperature, pressure, specific properties of
steam, refrigerants and ideal gas.

Thermodynamics Lesson

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Lesson # : Properties of Pure Substance

Thermodynamics (ME 102)

Learn to evaluate properties using:

Engineering Science Department

A substance that is homogenous and has invariable chemical composition is known as

System comprising of pure nitrogen is an example of pure substance. So is the system

A system of mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance as it is not

Liquefied-air in contact with gaseous-air is not a pure substance as proportion of

A system involving a chemical process is not a pure substance during the

The state of simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,

A phase is identified as having a distinct molecular arrangement that

Principal phases of pure substance are solid, liquid and gases.

Engineering Science Department

Isobaric heat addition in water at 100 kPa

Isobaric heat addition in water at 100 kPa

•Compressed Liquid or Sub cooled Liquid

Engineering Science Department

Engineering Science Department

Engineering Science Department

Engineering Science Department

Engineering Science Department

Engineering Science Department

Property tables of each substance is divided into three tables:

Selection of table depends on phase of working fluid.

Engineering Science Department

If pressure and temperature are given

If pressure and temperature are given

If pressure/temperature and specific volume/internal energy/enthalpy/entropy are given

In saturated liquid-vapor mixture phase

Approximation for compressed liquid

Step2: Determination of property

Step2: Determination of property

Step2: Determination of property

y = y1 + (x-x1) [(y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1)]

A gas that follows following conditions at all pressure and temperature:

As h = u + Pv, it follows that for ideal gas:

Any relation that relates P, v and T is known as equation of state.

For ideal gas following relations are used

Ru is universal gas constant and has value of 8314 J/kg K

Ideal gases are classified as:

Tavg = (300 +1000)/2 = 650 K

At the end of the lesson the student should be able to:

1.Define and discuss concept of pure substance.

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