Chapter 3

The Organization and Functions

of the Nervous System
 Overview

Nervous System
Central Nervous
Peripheral Nervous System
System
(Nerves & Ganglia)
(Tracts & Nuclei)

Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic Brain
Nervous System Spinal Cord
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous System Nervous System

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The Central Nervous System

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 The Central Nervous System
• Brain develops from a hollow, tubular structure
– Upper tube develops into
• Forebrain
• Midbrain
• Hindbrain
– Lower tube becomes the spinal cord

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The Central Nervous System

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 The CNS: The Forebrain

• Largest part of the brain

– Cerebral hemispheres separated by longitudinal
fissure
• Cortex is wrinkled outer layer
– Ridge: gyrus
– Groove: sulcus or fissure

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The CNS: The Forebrain

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The CNS: The Forebrain

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 The CNS: The Forebrain

• Do intelligent individuals have bigger brains?

– Brain size is mostly related to body size, because
larger bodies require larger brains
• Examples: Elephants and sperm whales have
brains that are 5–6 times larger than humans.

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Two key features characterize more “intelligent”
species
– Cortex has more convolutions
– Cerebral hemispheres are larger in proportion
to other brain areas

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The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Directions (relative to other structures)
– Dorsal vs. ventral
– Anterior vs. posterior
– Lateral vs. medial
– Superior vs. inferior
• Planes of section
– Coronal (L/M and D/V)
– Sagittal (A/P and D/V)
– Horizontal (A/P and L/M)
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The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

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The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Frontal lobe
– Movement and complex human capabilities
– Motor cortex found on the precentral gyrus
controls voluntary movement
– Broca’s area is important for speech
production
– Prefrontal cortex involved in planning,
impulse control, and decision making

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The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Lobotomy is the surgical
destruction of the
prefrontal cortex
• Psychosurgery treats
cognitive and emotional
disorders

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Parietal lobe
– Important for body
sensations, attention,
perception, and spatial
localization
– Primary
somatosensory cortex
on the postcentral
gyrus processes skin
senses, body position,
and movement
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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Parietal association areas
– Combine information
from body senses and
vision
– Identify objects by touch,
determine the location of
the limbs, and locate
objects in space
• Posterior parietal cortex
damage causes neglect

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Temporal separated from frontal and parietal lobes
by the lateral fissure
– Contain the auditory cortex, language, auditory
and visual association areas
– Wernicke’s area is involved in language
comprehension and production
– Inferior temporal cortex is concerned with visual
identification

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The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex

• Occipital is posterior lobe of brain

– Primary visual cortex contains a map of visual
space
• Adjacent receptors in the eye send information
to adjacent points in the visual cortex

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Cortex
• Secondary visual areas
that process individual
components of a scene
– Color, movement,
and form

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Other
Areas
• Thalamus
– Sensory processing,
arousal

• Hypothalamus

– Emotions and
motivations;
– Regulates pituitary
gland

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Other
Areas
• Pineal gland
– Descartes’ “seat of the
soul”
– Regulates daily
rhythms (melatonin)
• Structures
– Corpus callosum
– Ventricles – cavities
that contain CSF

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Other
Areas
• Corpus callosum
– Dense band of fibers
connecting
hemispheres

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 The CNS: The Forebrain – Other
Areas
• During development, the
hollow interior of the nervous
system becomes the
ventricles
– Filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)
• Carries material from
the blood vessels to
the CNS
• Transports waste
materials out of the
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 The CNS: The Midbrain
• Midbrain
– Secondary roles in vision,
audition, movement
– Superior colliculi-visual
– Inferior colliculi-auditory
– Reticular formation
– Not on figure:
• Substantia nigra
• Ventral tegmental area

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 The CNS: The Midbrain

• Hindbrain
– Basic functions
– Medulla
– Pons
• Part of the reticular
formation
– Cerebellum

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 The CNS: The Spinal Cord

• The spinal cord is a cable

of neurons that carries
sensory information to
the brain, and motor
commands to the
muscles and organs

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 The CNS: The Spinal Cord

– Sensory neurons enter through the dorsal root (1)

– Motor neuron axons leave through the ventral
root (3, 4)
– Interneurons connect sensory and motor neurons,
or and brain (5, 6)
– Reflex- sensory neuron to interneuron to motor
neuron (2)

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 The CNS: Protection
• Meninges: three layers
– Dura (tough outside)
– Arachnoid (BBB)
– Pia (on brain surface)
• Blood-brain barrier:
– Limits passage of
substances between
blood and brain

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 The Peripheral Nervous System
• Contents
– Cranial nerves on the
underside of the brain
– Spinal nerves that connect to
the sides of the spinal cord at
each vertebra

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 The Peripheral Nervous System
• Subsystems
– Somatic nervous system
• Motor and sensory neurons that allow us to
sense and react to the environment
– Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Controls smooth muscle, glands, heart, and
other organs

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The Peripheral Nervous System

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The PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
• Sympathetic nervous system
(fight-flight)
– Activates the body in ways
that help it cope with
demands, such as emotional
stress and physical
emergencies
– Has most of its ganglia in the
sympathetic ganglion chain

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The PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic nervous
system
– Slows activity of organs,
increases digestion

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Development and Change in Nervous System

1. Proliferation
– Neurons divide and
multiply in ventricular
zone (neurogenesis)
2. Migration
– Neurons move up
radial glial cells
towards final locations

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Development and Change in Nervous System

3. Circuit pruning
– Synaptic plasticity
• Active synapses
strengthened
• Inactive ones
removed
– Decreases with age

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Development and Change in Nervous System

4. Circuit pruning
– Synaptic plasticity
• Active synapses
strengthened
• Inactive ones
removed
– Decreases with age

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 Development and Change in Nervous System

• Mother’s use of alcohol

during brain development:
– Brain smaller and
malformed with
dislocated neurons
– Cortical neurons do not
migrate correctly into
columns
– Some neurons migrate
too far

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 Development and Change in Nervous System

• Stimulation continues to shape

synaptic construction and
reconstruction throughout life
• Much of this involves
reorganization
– Shift in connections that
changes the area’s function
– Provides compensation for
peripheral changes
– Reorganization is not
always beneficial
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Development and Change in Nervous System

• Stroke due to internal forces

– Caused by artery blockage (ischemic) or rupture
(hemorrhagic)
– Damage is due to oxygen and glucose
deprivation, excitotosis, and edema (swelling)
– Leading cause of death and disability in the U.S.

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Development and Change in Nervous System

• Traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to external forces

– Caused by a blow to the head, penetration, or
sudden acceleration or deceleration
– Even trauma that does not produce concussion
can result in brain changes typically seen in
Alzheimer’s patients

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 Development and Change in Nervous System

• Regeneration is the regrowth of severed axons

– Myelin provides a guide tube for the neuron to grow
through, and the axon is guided to its destination much
as in development
• Neurogenesis
– Birth of new neurons
– Occurs in several areas in adult brain
• Most extensive in hippocampus and near lateral
ventricles

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 Development and Change in Nervous System

• Compensation
– Uninjured tissue takes over
functions of lost areas
• Reorganization
– Functions are taken over by
other, more distant areas
– Typically, by cells in an
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 Development and Change in Nervous System

• Possibilities for repair

– Neuron growth
enhancers
– Providing guide tubes
or scaffolding
– Counteracting regrowth
inhibitors
• Stem cells are an ideal
means of neural repair

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