Week 1 - Introduction To Research and Quantitative Research Basics

RESEARCH 101
BASICS
SHS Practical Research 1 Gift Dionson 1

Research
Inquiry that investigates
hypotheses, suggests new
interpretations of data or
texts, poses new questions
for future research to
explore.

Research
It is a process to discover
new knowledge.
A systematic investigation
designed to develop or
contribute to
generalizable knowledge.

Definition of Terms
Theoretica
l
It is concerned with
developing,
exploring, or testing
theories or ideas

Definition of Terms
Empirical
It is based on observations
and measurements of
reality – on what we
perceive of the world
around us

Definition of Terms
Causal
Looking into the cause-effect
relationships.
The goal is to bring change, or
improve current scenario, or
eliminate some of the major
problems

Classification
of Research
• According to Purpose
• According to the Level

of Investigation

Classification
of Research
• According to Choice of
Answers to Problem
• According to Data or
Statistical Content

According It is done for
to Purpose: understanding
phenomenon ;
developing theories
• Basic or Pure and principles.
It is done to test
• Applied efficacy of a theory
or principle.

According
to Level of
Investigation: It is done to find
out pertinent
• Exploratory / variables
Assessment It is done to find
• Descriptive or out the relationship
of two variables
Correlation It is done to find out
• Experimental the effect of one
variable to another
According
to Choice of Answers
to Problems
It is done to measure
the efficacy of one
work method.
• Evaluation
It is done to design
• Developmental better work
method
Longitudinal, cross sectional, and
cross sequential

According to Data
or Statistical
Content
It is done with the
use of inferential
statistics
• Quantitative
It is done with the
• Qualitative use of descriptive
statistics

Quantitative Research Process
Theory
Hypothesis/ Research Questions
Research Design
Device Measures of Concepts
Select Research Site / Respondents
Data Collection
Preparation of Data
Analysis and Interpretation
Drawing of Conclusions
Report Writing
Theory
It is a standardized principle on which basis the researchers can
explain the relationship between two or more concepts or variables
Purpose: Process of
Levels:
• Prediction • Abstract
Development:
• Understanding • Inductive
• Empirical
• Deductive

Hypothesis / Research Questions
A predictive statement of relationship between two or more
variable, which may then be tested through research.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis:

Types: • A definite statement
• Null • Based on observations and knowledge
• Alternative • Predict the results very clear
Directional and Non-directional • Testable with straight forward experiment

Research Design
It is the overall plan for connecting the conceptual research
problems to the pertinent and achievable empirical research.

Research Design Research Methodology
Focuses on the end Focuses on the research
product. process
Driven by research Driven by specific tasks
problem or question at hand
Focuses on the logic of Focuses on the
research individual steps in the
research process

Types of Research Design

Action, Case Study, Causal, Cohort, Cross-
Sectional, Descriptive, Experimental,
Exploratory, Historical, Longitudinal, Meta-
Analysis, and Observational,

Types of Research Design (1)
Action Research Design

It follows a characteristic cycle whereby
initially an exploratory stance is adopted,
where an understanding of a problem is
developed and plans are made for some of
interventionary strategy.

Case Study Design

It is an in-depth study of a particular research
problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry.

Causal Design
Causality studies are understanding a
phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements in the form, “If X, then Y.”

Cohort Design
It refers to a study conducted over a period of
time involving member of a population which
the subject or representative member comes
from, and who are united by some
commonality or similarity.

Cross-Sectional Design
No time dimension, a reliance on existing
differences and groups are selected based on
existing difference rather than random
allocation.

Descriptive Design
It helps provide answers to the questions of
who, what, when, where, and how associated
with a particular research problem.

Experimental Design
It is often used where there is time priority in
a causal relationship, there is consistency in
causal relationship and the magnitude of
correlation is great.

Exploratory Design
It is conducted about a research problem
when there are few or no earlier studies to
refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome.

Historical Research Design

It is done to collect, verify, and synthesize
evidences from the past to establish facts that
defend or refute hypothesis.

Longitudinal Design
It follows the same sample over time and
makes repeated observations.

Meta-Analysis Design
It is an analytical methodology designed to
systematically evaluate and summarize the
results from a number of individual studies.

Observational Design
It draws a conclusion by comparing subjects
against a control group, in cases where the
researcher has no control over the
experiment.


Abstract realities or generalized ideas about objects, attributes,
occurrence or processes that cannot be measured directly.
Concepts are the building blocks of theory.
Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it

becomes measurable variable.

Validity Reliability
• Face Validity • Test-Retest
• Predictive • Parallel-Form
• Concurrent • Inter-Item
• Convergent Consistency
• Split-Half

Select Research Size/Respondents
Population
• The universe of units from which sample is to be
selected
Sample
• The segment of the population that is selected for the
investigation.
Sampling Frame
• The listing of all the units in the population from which
the sample will be selected.

Select Research Size/Respondents
Representative Sample
• A sample that reflects the population accurately so that it is
microcosm of the population
Sampling Error
• The different between a sample and the population from
which it is selected

Data Collection
Survey
Structured Structured
Questionnaire
Interview Observation
Telephone Self-
Participant
Interview administered
Face-to-Face Non-
Postal
Interview Participant
Online

Structured Interview
Structured interviewing is the process

of administering an interview
schedule by an interviewer
Types: Telephone interview, Face-to-face interview

Personal or Face-to-Face Interview
Description Advantages Disadvantages
• The interviewer and the • Can establish rapport and • Takes personal time
interviewee confronted motivate respondents • Costs more when a wide
each other • Can clarify the questions, geographic region is
clear doubts, add new covered
questions • Respondents may be
• Can read nonverbal cues concerned about
• Can user visual data to confidentiality of info
clarify points • Interviewers need to be
• rich trained
• Can introduced interviewer
biases
• Respondents can terminate
the interview any time

Telephone Interview
• The interview which is • Less costly and speedier • Nonverbal cues cannot be
conducted through than personal interviews read
communication medium or • Can reach a wide • Interviews will have to be
device. geographic area kept short
• Greater anonymity than • Obsolete telephone
personal interviews number could be
contacted, and unlisted
ones omitted from the
sample

Structured Observations
It is a purposeful, systematic and

selective way of watching and
listening to an interaction or
phenomenon as it takes place.
Types: Participant observation, Non-participant

observation

Participant Observation
• Researcher participates in • Better accuracy • Participant observation

the activities of the group • Less cost takes time and
being observed in the same • Researcher is collecting commitment
manner observed data or reported • Usually does not examine
data motivation, attitude, or
• Can obtain data from those feeling toward particular
unable to communicate in behavior
written or oral form. • Time cost

Non-Participant Observation
• Researcher do not get • The individual may simple • The lack of interaction may,
involved in the activities of be unaware of how they however make it difficult
the group but remains as behave in a particular for the researcher to be
observer. situation able to clarify or interrupt
• Save the researcher’s time. the phenomena been
investigated.

Questionnaire
Questionnaire is pre- Factors that influence
questionnaires:
formulated written set of 1. Research question(s)
questions to which 2. Research objectives
3. Characteristics of
respondents record their respondents
4. Size of sample
answers. 5. Dimensions of the
concept to be measured
6. And availability of
Types: Online, Postal, and Self- required resources
administered

Questionnaire
Self-Administered Questionnaire
• Self-administered • Can establish rapport and • Organizations may be
questionnaire is a motivate respondent reluctant to give up
questionnaire in which • Doubts can be clarified company time for the
interviewee answer the • Less expensive when survey with group of
question by himself. administered to groups employee assembled for
• Almost 100% response rate the purpose.
ensured
• Anonymity of respondent is
high

Questionnaire
Postal Questionnaire
• It is a type of questionnaire • Anonymity is high • Response rate is almost

which can be sent to the • Wide geographic regions always cannot clarify
respondents through mail can be reached questions
or any other postal mode. • Token gifts can be enclosed • Follow-up procedures for
to seek compliance no responses are necessary
• Respondent can take more
time to respond at
convenience

Questionnaire
Electronic/ Online Questionnaire
• The questionnaire which • Easy to administer • Computer literacy is a must

the researcher sent through • Can reach respondents • Respondent must have
the internet. globally access to the facility
• Very inexpensive • Respondent must be willing
• Fast delivery to complete the survey
• Convenient for respondents

DESIGNING A
QUESTIONNAIRE
Principle of Wording (1)
1. The nature of the variable will determine what
kind and number of questions will be asked.
2. The wording should be simple, easy, and

appropriate
3. Closed ended questions will be used with the

intention to have ease, and enhanced
comparability.

DESIGNING A
QUESTIONNAIRE
Principle of Wording (1)
4. Add both positively as well as negatively worded
questions.
5. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall

depended, leader or loaded questions.
6. The sequence of question in the questionnaire

should be from general to specific, and easy to
more difficult.

DESIGNING A
QUESTIONNAIRE
Principle of Measurement (2)
1. Interval and ratio scales should be used in

preference to nominal or ordinal
2. The measure must be assessed through

tests of validity and reliability.

DESIGNING A
QUESTIONNAIRE
General Getup of Questionnaire (3)
1. Start with a good introduction.

2. Questions should be well organized with
instructions and guidance.
3. Only relevant personal information should
be demanded that is not sensitive.
4. End with a courteous note.

Preparation of Data
It is the process of collecting, cleaning, and

consolidating data into one file or data table,
primarily for use in analysis.
Concerns: Dependent and Independent Variable

It is the process by which sense and meaning

are made of the data gathered in research,
and by which emergent knowledge is applied
to respondent’s problems.

Descriptive Statistics
It is used to describe basic features of the data

in the study. They provide simple summaries
about the sample and the measures.
Types: Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Spread

Correlation Statistics
Statistical technique that can show

whether and how strongly pairs of
variables are related.

Inferential Statistics
Allows the researcher to begin

making inferences about the
hypothesis based on the data
collected.

Drawing of Conclusion
It is a synthesis of key points where the
researcher recommends new area for
future research.
It provides the
opportunity to say how
It leaves the reader with
It provides an ending to your research can
a final impression of the
the project. contribute to the
quality of work.
understanding of the
knowledge in this area.

Report Writing (Research Report)
It is a condensed form or brief

description of the research work done
by the researcher.
Characteristics:
Concise, Clear, Honest, Complete, Accurate

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RESEARCH 101

SHS Practical Research 1 Gift Dionson 1

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• According to the Level

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Hypothesis/ Research Questions

Device Measures of Concepts

Select Research Site / Respondents

Analysis and Interpretation

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Characteristics of a good hypothesis:

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Types of Research Design

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Action Research Design

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Case Study Design

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Historical Research Design

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Device Measures of Concepts

Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it

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Structured interviewing is the process

Types: Telephone interview, Face-to-face interview

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Description Advantages Disadvantages

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It is a purposeful, systematic and

Types: Participant observation, Non-participant

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Description Advantages Disadvantages

• Researcher participates in • Better accuracy • Participant observation

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Description Advantages Disadvantages

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Description Advantages Disadvantages