CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies

Flow Over Immersed Bodies
General External Flow

Characteristics
General External Flow Characteristics
• Many situations involve flow past objects
• Such flow is termed external flow
• Both theoretical and experimental approaches are used

to study external flows
• For external flows it is easier to use a coordinate system

fixed to the object, i.e. to consider the fluid flowing past a
stationary body with velocity U, the upstream velocity
• Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics

Flow Structure vs. Body Shape
a) two-dimensional axisymmetric three-dimensional
b) streamlined bodies, blunt bodies

Lift and Drag Concepts
Forces from the surrounding fluid on
a two-dimensional object:
pressure force
viscous force
resultant force (lift and drag)

D
D   p cos  dA    w sin  dA CD 
1
U 2 A
2
L
L    p sin  dA    w cos  dA CL 
1
U 2 A back
2
Example
a) L=0 D = 0.0992 lb
b) L=0 D = 55.6 lb
c) L≠0 D≠0
Characteristics of Flow Past an Object
• Character of the flow is function of the shape of the body
• For a given-shaped body, characteristics of the flow

depends on the value of Reynolds number
• For most external flows – 10 < Re < 109
• As a rule of thumb, flows with Re > 100 are dominated

by inertia effects, whereas flows with Re < 1 are
dominated by viscous effects
Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow
past a flat plate
parallel to the
upstream velocity:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds
number flow
Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow past
a circular cylinder:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds number
flow
back
Example
Boundary Layer Characteristics
Boundary
Layer
Structure and
Thickness
on a Flat Plate
• Large Reynolds number flow fields may be divided into viscous and inviscid regions
• Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects
• Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside
• Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Re xcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106
• Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

parcels
• For laminar flows, mixing occurs only on the molecular scale

Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate
• Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

layer analysis:
– standard boundary layer thickness 
– boundary layer displacement thickness *
– boundary layer momentum thickness 

Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate
  y where u  0.99U
Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness
Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness
  u 
 
*
1   dy
0
 U 
• Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

body must be increased so that the fictitious uniform inviscid flow has the
same mass flowrate properties as the actual viscous flow
• It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

viscous effects on the plate
Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness
Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness
 u  u 
 1   dy
0 U  U 
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are obtained from Navier-Stokes & continuity equations
Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are
u v
 0
x y
u u 1 p   2u  2u 
u v    2  2 
x y  x  x y 
v v 1 p   2v  2v 
u v     2  2 
x y  y  x y 
L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

H. Blasius solved these simplified equations for the boundary layer flow past a flat
plate parallel to the flow
Assumptions made:
 
1. v u and 
x y
2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid
With these assumptions governing equations
u v
 0
x y
u u 1 p   2u  2 u 
u v    2  2 
x y  x  x y 
v v 1 p   2v  2v 
u v     2  2 
x y  y  x y 
reduce to boundary layer equations:

Boundary layer equations:
u v
 0
x y
u u  2u
u v  2
x y x
Boundary layer equations:
u v
 0
x y
u u  2u
u v  2
x y x
Boundary conditions:
uv0 on y0
u U as y
Further assumptions:
1. In dimensionless form boundary layer velocity profiles on a flat plate should
be similar regardless on the location along the plate
u  y
 g 
U  
2. Boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and inversely

proportional to the square root of U
x

U
U
By introducing dimensionless similarity variable y
x
and the stream function   f  xU , where f  f   is unknown function,
velocity components become
vU
u  Uf  v  f   f 
4x
Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives
2 f   ff   0
Boundary conditions
f  f   0 at   0
f  1 as   
Boundary layer profiles in Similar boundary layer

dimensionless form profiles at different locations
From solution it is found that u U  0.99 when   5.0 . Thus:

Laminar, flat plate boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of the
distance from the leading edge
x  5
 5 or 
U x Re x
Also
 * 1.721  0.664
 and 
x Re x x Re x

 w  0.332 U 3
x
x  0.124
 5  7.48 103 x m  w  0.332 U 3 
U x x
at x  3 m   0.013 m
 w  0.0716 m
at x  6 m   0.0183 m
 w  0.0506 m
Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for
a Flat Plate
• Drag on a flat plate can be determined from Prandtl/Blasius

boundary layer solution
• An alternative is the Momentum Integral method
• Momentum integral method provides an approximate technique to

analyze boundary layer flow
• To derive momentum integral boundary layer equation consider

uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for
a Flat Plate
• Assumptions:
• Flow is steady within control volume
• Pressure is constant throughout the flow field
• Flow at section 1 is uniform
• Velocity at section 2 varies from zero at the plate to upstream velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
x component of the momentum equation

Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
x component of the momentum equation F x    uV  nˆ dA    uV  nˆ dA

 1  2
where for a flat plate of with b F x  D   

plate
 w dA  b 
plate
 w dx
and D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid

D = U bh   b  u 2dy
2
Thus 0

From continuity equation Ubh   b  udy
0

Then D   b  u  U  u  dy
0
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer

D   b  u  U  u  dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases,  increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer

D   b  u  U  u  dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases,  increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
The thickness of the boundary layer is necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous shear
stress on the plate (in contrary to horizontal fully developed pipe flow)
Equation above was obtained by T. von Karman in 1921

Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
In term of the momentum thickness
D   bU 2 
Shear stress on a flat plate is proportional to the rate of boundary layer growth
d
 w  U 2
dx
Last equation is known as the momentum integral equation for the boundary layer flow on
a flat plate
Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Method
Usefulness of the momentum integral equation lies in ability to obtain approximate

boundary layer results by using rather crude assumptions
Even a rather crude guess at the velocity profile will allow us to obtain reasonable drag and
shear stress results
Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .

The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/δ for 0  y  
y 
and u = U for as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using
the momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .

The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/δ for 0  y  
y 
and u = U for as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using
the momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
d
From momentum integral equation  w  U 2 (1)
dx
U
on the other hand w   (2)

 u  u 
Momentum thickness   1  dy  (3)
0 U
 U  6
U U 2 d 6
From (1), (2) and (3)  or  d   dx
 6 dx U
Integrating from leading edge to arbitrary x we get
 2 6 x
 x or   3.46 (4)
2 U U

Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress  w  0.289U 3 2
x

Blasuis value  w  0.332U 3 2
x
• In the previous example momentum integral equation was used along with
the linear dimensionless velocity profile to obtain reasonable boundary layer
results
• Accuracy of results depends on how closely the shape of the assumed
profile approximates the actual profile
Consider general velocity profile as a function of dimensionless coordinate
u  y
 g   gY for 0  Y 1
U  
u
1 for Y  1
U
Boundary conditions
g  0  0 and g  1  1
dg
0
dY Y 1
Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
 2 C2 C1 C1C2 3 2 
 and w  U
x Re x 2 x
where
1 dg Ux
C1   g  Y  1  g  Y   dY C2  Re x 
0 dY Y 0 
For any assumed profile the functional dependence of  and w on , , U and x is

the same, only constants are different. That is
   x U or  Re x x  const and  w  U 3 x

Typical approximate boundary layer profile

used in the momentum integral equation
2 w 2C1C2
Local friction coefficient cf  
U 2 Re x
1 l 8C1C2
l 0
Friction drag coefficient CDf  c f dx 
Rel
1
Friction drag Df  CDf U 2bl
2
Momentum Integral boundary method apply to boundary layer flows on curved

surfaces and to turbulent flows
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
The boundary layer on a flat plate will become turbulent if the plate is long enough
On a flat plate with a sharp leading edge in a typical air stream, the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow takes place at a distance x from the leading edge given by
Re xcr  2  105 to Re xcr  3 106
Unless otherwise stated, we will use
Re xcr  5 105
in our calculations
Turbulent spots and the transition

from laminar to turbulent boundary
layer flow on a flat plate. Flow from
left to right
Transition from
Laminar to
Turbulent Flow
Typical boundary layer profiles on a flat

plate for laminar, transitional, and
turbulent flow
Example
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 10 ft/s. At

approximately what location will the boundary layer become turbulent, and how
thick is the boundary layer at that point if the fluid is (a) water at 60°F, (b)
standard air, or (c) glycerin at 68 °F
Solution
x  Re xcr
 5 xcr   5 104  cr   x  xcr
 354
U U
Results
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
• Structure of turbulent boundary layer is complex, random and irregular

• Flow is the jumbled mix of eddies (swirls) of different size
• Mass, momentum and energy are convected in x and y directions
• Mass convection is small in y direction but there is considerable transfer of x
component of momentum in y direction
• Plate acts as a momentum sink, extracting momentum from fluid
• Wall shear stress for turbulent boundary layer flow is greater than for laminar
• There is no “exact” solution for turbulent boundary layer since there is no
precise expression for shear stress in turbulent flow
• Solution can be obtained by use of momentum integral equation. For that one
need:
– approximate velocity profile
– empirical relation for wall shear stress
• Also, progress is being made in numerical integration of Navier-Stokes
equations
Example 9.6 Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate.
the boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/δ)1/7 = Y1/7 for
Y = y/δ ≤ 1 and u = U for Y > 1. This is a reasonable approximation of
experimentally observed profiles, except very near the plate where this formula
gives u/y =  at y = 0. Note the differences between the assumed turbulent
profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stress agrees with the
experimentally determined formula:
14
  
 w  0.225U 2  
 U 
Determine the boundary layer thicknesses δ,

δ*, and  and the wall shear stress, τw, as the
function of x. Determine the friction drag
coefficient, CDf
Solution Momentum integral equation
d
 w  U 2
dx
For assumed velocity profile, boundary layer momentum thickness
 u  u  1 u  u 
 1   dy   0  1   dY
0 U  U  U  U 
or by integration
7
 
1
    Y 1 7 1  Y 1 7 dY  
0 72
Boundary layer thickness is obtained from differential equation
14
   7 d
0.225U 2    U 2
 U  72 dx
14
 
 1 4 d  0.231  dx
U 
15
 
By integration from   0 at x  0:   0.370   x 4 5
U 
 0.370
or in dimensionless form 
x Re1x 5
Displacement thickness
 u  1 u  
 
1
 *   1   dy   0  U
1   dY   0 1  Y 17
dY 
0
 U   8
15
 
 *  0.0463   x 4 5
U 
Momentum thickness
15
7  
    0.0360   x 4 5
72 U 
Wall shear stress
14
   0.228 U 2
 w  0.0225 U 
2
 
 U  0.370    U  x 
15 45
Re1x 5
Friction drag
l bl
D f   b w dx  0.0360 U 2
0 Re1l 5
Friction drag coefficient
Df 0.0720
СDf  
1 Re1l 5
U 2 A
2
Comments
Laminar boundary layer flow Turbulent boundary layer flow
  x1 2  x4 5
 w  x 1 2  w  x 1 5
The random character of the turbulent flow causes a different structure of the
flow
Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l
Friction drag coefficient for a flat

plate parallel to the upstream flow
Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l
Friction drag coefficient for a flat

plate parallel to the upstream flow
Effect of Pressure Gradient
• For flow along a flat plate pressure is constant throughout
• For flow past body other than flat plate the pressure is not uniform
• Pressure variation in direction normal to the surface is small but

pressure does vary along the body surface if surface is curved
• Terminology: U – upstream velocity; Ufs – free-stream velocity, the

fluid velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
• Variation in Ufs causes pressure gradient in the boundary layer
• Characteristics of the entire flow are dependent on the pressure

gradient within the boundary layer
• For a flat plate U = Ufs, for a curved surface body it is not

For inviscid flow:
  0, Re  ,  =0, U fs  v s
ps is determined from Bernoulli equation
Pressure is symmetrical and drag is zero
Experiment shows that drag is nonzero,

moreover, drag is essentially independent of
the value of 
• For inviscid flow fluid particle travel

without loss of energy
• It is accelerated from Ufs = 0 at stagnation

point to Ufs = 2U at the top, and than
decelerated to Ufs = 0 at the rear
• There is exchange of pressure and kinetic

energy
• The decrease in pressure in the direction

of flow along front half of the cylinder is
termed favorable pressure gradient
• The increase in pressure in the direction

of flow along the rear half of the cylinder is
termed adverse pressure gradient
• For viscid flow the particle in the

boundary layer experiences a
loss of energy due to friction
• The kinetic energy of a particle is

not enough to reach the rear end,
and the flow separates from the
surface
• Because of the boundary layer

separation the average pressure
on the rear half of the cylinder is
considerably less than that on the
front half, and large pressure drag
is developed
• Viscous effects within the

boundary layer cause boundary
layer separation
• Location of separation, width of the wake

region, and pressure distribution depend
on the nature of the boundary layer
• Turbulent boundary layer has more

kinetic energy and momentum than
laminar boundary layer because:
– velocity profile is fuller
– there is energy associated with

swirling motion
• Thus, turbulent boundary layer

separation occurs later along the surface
Drag and Lift
Generalized Formulae for Drag and Lift
• Any object moving through fluid experience drag D
• D is a net force in the direction of flow due to the pressure (pressure drag
Dp) and shear forces (friction drag Df) on the surface of the object
• If the object is not symmetrical, there may also be a force normal to the free
stream – a lift L
• Following generalized formulae can be used for drag and lift calculations:
D    p n i dA    w  i dA
A A
L    p n j dA    w  j dA
A A
• Compare with eqs. 9.1, 9.2

Drag
Drag can be determined by use of equation D    p n i dA    w  i dA

A A
if pressure distribution and wall shear stress are known. But they are difficult to
determined analytically
Most of information of drag is obtained from experiment
Experimental results are given in the form of a drag coefficient:
D
CD 
1
U 2 A
2
CD is a function of shape of the body, Reynolds number, Mach number, Froude

number and relative roughness:
CD    shape, Re, Ma, Fr,  l 
Friction Drag
• Friction drag is a function of wall shear stress and orientation of a

surface
D f    w  i dA
• Consider flat plate parallel and perpendicular to the flow
• For blunt bodies and high Reynolds number flows contribution of the
shear force to overall drag is quite small
• For highly streamlined bodies and low Reynolds number flows most
of the drag may be due to friction drag
Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
D f    w  i dA
or from
1
Df  U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table

Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
D f    w  i dA
or from
1
Df  U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table
Wall shear stress along the surface of a curved body is difficult to determine.
Approximate results may be obtained.
If shear stress is known, friction drag can be determined
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more
advanced theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the
separation location at   108.8°, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The
shear stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8<<180°, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient
for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more
advanced theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the
separation location at   108.8°, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The
shear stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8<<180°, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient
for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
D 
Solution: D f    w  i dA  2   b   w sin  d
A
2 0
2Df 2 
2 0 w
CDf    sin  d
U bD U
2
 2 w 1  2 w Re
CDf   sin  d   sin  d
0 U 2 Re 0 U 2
Example (cntd.)
1 
CDf 
Re
 F    sin  d
0
Answer:
5.93
CDf 
Re
Result is valid only for laminar boundary layer flow

Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is produced by the normal stresses.

Pressure (form) drag strongly depends of the body shape.
It can be determined from
D p    p n i dA
A
or in terms of the pressure drag coefficient

2D p 2 p n i dA  C p n i dA
CDp   
U 2 A U 2 A A
where pressure coefficient (dimensionless form of the pressure)

2  p  p0 
Cp 
U 2
For high Reynolds number flows CDp is relatively independent of Reynolds

number
For very small Reynolds number flows CDp is proportional to 1/Re
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
Example (cntd.)
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
1 1 2 D 2
  C p cos  dA 
bD 0
CDp C p cos    d   C p cos  d
A 2 0
Pressure drag coefficient
CDp  1.17
Example (cntd.)
5.93
Drag coefficient CD  CDf  CDp   1.17
Re
Df CDf 5.93 Re 1
  
 5.93 
Friction drag to total drag ratio
D CD Re  1.17 1  0.197 Re
For Re = 103, 104, and 105 ratio is 0.138, 0.0483, and 0.0158
Most of the drag on the blunt cylinder is the

pressure drag – a result of the boundary
layer separation
Comparison with the experimental data

Drag Coefficient Data
Shape Dependence
Drag coefficient for an ellipse

with the characteristic area
either the frontal area, A = bD,
or the planform area, A = bl
Shape Dependence (amount of streamlining)
Two objects of considerably different size that gave the same drag force:
(a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12
Reynolds Number Dependence
Case 1. Low Reynolds number (Re<1)

For very low Reynolds number flows, inertia is negligible, and drag coefficient varies inversely with Re
Case 2. Moderate Reynolds number

Flow past a circular cylinder can take on a variety of different structures
Drag coefficient may change considerably when the boundary layer becomes turbulent
Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds

number for objects with various degrees of streamlining
Compressibility Effects
• For large U, compressibility effects become important and CD = (Re, Ma)
• Precise dependence of CD on Re and Ma is complex.
• Drag coefficient is usually independent of Mach number for Ma < 0.5. For
larger Mach number, CD strongly depend on Ma, with secondary Reynolds
number effects. Figure
• For most objects values of CD increase dramatically in the vicinity of Ma = 1

due to existence of shock waves Figure
• The character of the drag coefficient as a function of Mach number is

different for blunt bodies than for sharp bodies Figure
Surface Roughness
• Depending on the body shape, an increase in surface roughness may

increase or decrease drag
• In general, for streamline bodies (flat plate parallel to flow) drag increases
with increasing surface roughness
• For extremely blunt body (flat plate normal to flow) drag is independent of
surface roughness
• For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere, an increase in surface

roughness can cause a decrease in the drag Figure
Froude Number Effects
• Froude number is the ratio of free-stream speed to wave speed on the

interface of two fluids.
• Object moving on the surface produces waves that require the source of
energy.
• Drag coefficient for surface ships is a function of Reynolds number (viscous

effects) and Froude number (wave-making effects)
• Viscous and wave effect can be separated
• Wave-making drag Dw is a complex function of the Froude number and the

body shape Figure
Composite Body Drag
• Drag on a complex body can be approximated as the sum of the drag on its
parts Example
• Aerodynamic drag on automobiles provides one more example of the use of

composite bodies Figure
• Drag coefficient information is available in the literature Figures

Lift
Lift
• Lift is given in term of the lift coefficient which is obtained from experiments
• CL =  (shape, Re, Ma, Fr, /l)
• Body shape is the most important parameter that effects the lift coefficient
• Relative importance of shear stress and pressure effects depends on Re
• For large Re most of the lift comes from pressure forces

Lift
Pressure distribution on a surface of an automobile

Lift
• For creeping flows (Re<1) shear stress and pressure effects may be
comparable
• Airfoils produce lift by generating pressure distribution that is different on the

top and bottom surfaces
• For large Re pressure distributions are directly proportional to the dynamic

pressure, with viscous effects being of secondary importance
Airfoil
 angle of attack
c chord length
A = bc planform area
 = b2/A aspect ratio
 = b/c if c is constant
• Lift and drag coefficients for wings are functions of the angle of attack and aspect ratio Figure
• At large angles of attack the boundary layer separates and the wing stalls Figures
• Flaps alter the lift and drag characteristics of a wing Figure

That’s all
Circulation
Circulation
Circulation
Circulation

 w  0.332 U 3
x
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
back
Navier-Stokes equations
 u u u u  p   2u  2 u  2u 
   u  v  w      gx    2  2  2 
 t x y z  x  x y z 
 v v v v  p   2v  2 v  2 v 
   u  v  w      gy    2  2  2 
 t x y z  y  x y z 
 w w w w  p  2w 2w 2w 
 u v w      gz    2  2  2 
 t x y z  z  x y z 
back
Friction drag coefficient
for a flat plate parallel to
the upstream flow
back
back
back to ex 1
Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number
for a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere
back to ex 2
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for two-

dimensional objects in subsonic flow
back
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for supersonic flow
back
Surface Roughness
Effect of surface roughness on the drag coefficient of a sphere in the Reynolds

number range for which the laminar boundary layer becomes turbulent
back
Froude Number Effects
Typical drag coefficient data as a function of Froude number and hull

characteristics for that portion of the drag due to the generation of waves
back
Composite Body Drag
Example: A 60-mph (i.e. 88-fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in Fig. a. Estimate the moment, M,
needed at the base to keep the tower from tipping over.
Solution: Free-body diagram is shown in Fig. b
Composite Body Drag
Example: A 60-mph (i.e. 88-fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in Fig. a. Estimate the moment, M,
needed at the base to keep the tower from tipping over.
Solution: Free-body diagram is shown in Fig. b
 D  b
M  Ds  b  s   Dc  
 2  2
1  1
Ds  U 2 Ds2CDs Dc  U 2bDc CDc
2 4 2
UDs UDc
Re s   2.24 107 Re c   8.41106
 
From Figure 9.21
CDs  0.3 and CDc  0.7
Ds  3470 lb Dc  4840lb
Answer: M  3.64 105 ft·lb  493.52 kN·m

Example: (cntd.)
Comments: Above result is only an estimate because

(a) wind is not uniform
(b) tower is not exactly combination of smooth sphere and circular cylinder
(c) cylinder is not of infinite length
(d) due to interaction of cylinder and sphere the net drag is not the sum of the two
(e) drag coefficient was obtained by extrapolation
back
Composite Body Drag
Historical trend of streamlining automobiles to reduce their

aerodynamic drag and increase their miles per gallon
back
Composite Body Drag
Regular two-dimensional objects

Composite Body Drag
Regular Three-dimensional objects

Composite Body Drag
Other objects
back
Typical lift and drag coefficient
data as a function of angle of attack
and the aspect ratio of the airfoil
next
back
Flow visualization photographs of flow past an airfoil:
(a) zero angle of attack, no separation, (b)
5° angle of attack, flow separation
next
Two representation of the same lift and drag data for a typical airfoil:
(a) lift-to-drag ratio as a function of angle of attack, (b)
the lift and drag polar diagram
back
Typical lift and drag alterations
possible with the use of various
types of flap design
back
Assume (guess) velocity profile in the boundary layer u  u U, y
 u  u 
Obtain equation for  from  1   dy
0 U  U 
d
Calculate shear stress from  w  U 2
dx
Calculate drag from D   bU 2 
Even crude guess at the velocity profile gives reasonable drag and shear stress
Example
The water ski shown in figure moves through 70 °F water with a velocity U.
Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress on the bottom of the ski for 0 < U < 30
ft/s
Solution
Assumptions: Ski is a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow
1
Df  U 2blCDf  1.94U 2CDf
2
Ul
Re x   3.8  105U

For U  10 ft/s Re l =3.8 106 Df  0.598 lb
For U  30 ft/s Df  9.76 lb
Total drag is more than just friction drag.

Pressure drag must be accounted for.
Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Equation
with Nonzero Pressure Gradient
Pressure gradient effects can be included in the momentum integral equation

Free-stream velocity is not constant along the curved body
U fs  U U fs  U fs  x 
Total pressure is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary layer
p  U 2fs 2  const
Pressure gradient
dp dU fs
  U fs
dx dx
Momentum integral equation with pressure gradient:

d dU fs
w  
dx
 fs 
U 2
   *
U fs
dx
This equation represents a balance between viscous forces, pressure forces and the fluid
momentum

CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies

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CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies

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Flow Over Immersed Bodies

General External Flow

• Such flow is termed external flow

• Both theoretical and experimental approaches are used

• For external flows it is easier to use a coordinate system

• Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics

a) two-dimensional axisymmetric three-dimensional

b) streamlined bodies, blunt bodies

resultant force (lift and drag)

• For a given-shaped body, characteristics of the flow

• For most external flows – 10 < Re < 109

• As a rule of thumb, flows with Re > 100 are dominated

a) low Reynolds number

a) low Reynolds number

• Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects

• Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside

• Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Re xcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106

• Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

• For laminar flows, mixing occurs only on the molecular scale

• Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

– standard boundary layer thickness 

– boundary layer displacement thickness *

– boundary layer momentum thickness 

• Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

• It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid

With these assumptions governing equations

reduce to boundary layer equations:

2. Boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and inversely

Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives

Boundary layer profiles in Similar boundary layer

From solution it is found that u U  0.99 when   5.0 . Thus:

• Drag on a flat plate can be determined from Prandtl/Blasius

• An alternative is the Momentum Integral method

• Momentum integral method provides an approximate technique to

• To derive momentum integral boundary layer equation consider

x component of the momentum equation

x component of the momentum equation F x    uV  nˆ dA    uV  nˆ dA

where for a flat plate of with b F x  D   

and D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid

Equation above was obtained by T. von Karman in 1921

In term of the momentum thickness

Usefulness of the momentum integral equation lies in ability to obtain approximate

Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .

Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .

Consider general velocity profile as a function of dimensionless coordinate

For any assumed profile the functional dependence of  and w on , , U and x is

   x U or  Re x x  const and  w  U 3 x

Typical approximate boundary layer profile

Momentum Integral boundary method apply to boundary layer flows on curved

Unless otherwise stated, we will use

Turbulent spots and the transition

Typical boundary layer profiles on a flat

A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 10 ft/s. At

• Structure of turbulent boundary layer is complex, random and irregular

Determine the boundary layer thicknesses δ,

Laminar boundary layer flow Turbulent boundary layer flow

Friction drag coefficient for a flat

Friction drag coefficient for a flat

• For flow along a flat plate pressure is constant throughout