Lecture 8

Special Relativity
 Review: Einstein’s Postulates

◆ Einstein made two postulates:

1. The Principle of Relativity: The laws of physics are the same

in all inertial reference frames.

2. The Constancy of the Speed of Light: Light moves through a

vacuum at a constant speed c that is independent of the motion of the
light source relative to the observer.
 Review: Space and Time Transformations in SR

◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x = 0 in frame S, at what x´

will it be located in frame S´ after t = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x = 0 in frame S, at what x´

will it be located in frame S´ after t = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?

◆ x´ = 0 – 0.1 c × 1 s = -0.1 c × 1 s
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x = 0 in frame S, at what x´

will it be located in frame S´ after t = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?

◆ x´ = 0 – 0.1 c × 1 s = -0.1 c × 1 s

◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?

 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?

◆ x´ = (0 – 0.1 c × 1 s) / √ (1 – 0.12)
= (-0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
< (-0.1 c × 1 s)
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?

◆ x´ = (0 – 0.1 c × 1 s) / √ (1 – 0.12)
= (-0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
< (-0.1 c × 1 s)

◆ According to S, what appears to have happened to the ruler of S

 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?

◆ x´ = (0 – 0.1 c × 1 s) / √ (1 – 0.12)
= (-0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
< (-0.1 c × 1 s)

g to S, what appears to have happened to the ruler of S´? Shrunk! ("Le

 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Notice that t´ depend on x. What does imply physically?

 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. Suppose two flashbulbs, one located at x = 10m and
the other at x = 20m, both flash at time t = 10 s in frame S. At what
time t´ would they flash in frame S´ according to the Galilean
transformation?
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. Suppose two flashbulbs, one located at x = 10m and
the other at x = 20m, both flash at time t = 10 s in frame S. At what
time t´ would they flash in frame S´ according to the Galilean
transformation? Both flash at t´ = 10 s
◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

◆ Say that u = 0.1c. Suppose two flashbulbs, one located at x = 10m and
the other at x = 20m, both flash at time t = 10 s in frame S. At what
time t´ would they flash in frame S´ according to the Galilean
transformation? Both flash at t´ = 10 s
◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?
t´1 = (10 − 0.1 c 10 / c2) / √ (1 – 0.12) = (10 − 1
/ c) / 0.995
t´2 = (10 − 0.1 c 20 / c2) / √ (1 – 0.12) = (10
− 2 / c) / 0.995
They do not flash at the same time in frame S´.
This is the concept of the loss of simultaneity.
 Space and Time Transformations in SR

◆ Space and time are no longer independent.

◆ The spacial (or temporal) components of one event in one
reference frame may depend on both the spacial and the temporal
components of the same event in another reference frame.
Space and Time Transformations in SR

◆ Imagine that we have a two-

dimensional coordinate xy, and then
rotate it by an angle theta into a new
coordinate x´y´. The two coordinates
are related to each other by:

◆ The Lorentz transformation is similar

to a “rotation” between space and time!
 Space and Time Transformations in SR

◆ Under what condition does the Lorentz transformation closely

approach the Galilean transformation?
 Space and Time Transformations in SR

◆ Under what condition does the Lorentz transformation closely

approach the Galilean transformation? When u « c
◆ The Galilean transformation (Newtonian mechanics) is the
approximation of the Lorentz transformation (Special Relativity)
in the low speed / low energy limit.
 The Lorentz factor

◆ The Lorentz factor:

◆ γ is used a lot in astronomy. It gives us an estimate of the

importance of relativistic effects.
◆ When u << c, γ ≈ 1 and the Lorentz transformation reduces to
the Galilean transformation. When u → c, γ > 1.
 The Lorentz factor

◆ The Lorentz factor:

◆ Exercise 1: Rocket is one of the fastest moving man-made

object. Its speed can reach about 2500 m/s. What is the
Lorentz factor of the rocket?
 The Lorentz factor

◆ The Lorentz factor:

◆ Exercise 1: Rocket is one of the fastest moving man-made

object. Its speed can reach about 2500 m/s. What is the
Lorentz factor of the rocket?
◆ Answer: The speed of light c is about 300,000,000 m/s, so v
is negligible compared to c, and γ ≈ 1.
 The Lorentz factor

◆ The Lorentz factor:

◆ Exercise 2: A gamma-ray burst produces the fastest

astrophysical jet. Its Lorentz factor can reach 20. What is
its velocity?
 The Lorentz factor

◆ The Lorentz factor:

◆ Exercise 2: A gamma-ray burst produces the fastest

astrophysical jet. Its Lorentz factor can reach 20. What is
its velocity?
◆ Answer: v>0.998c!
The Lorentz factor
u/c g
0.141.01
0.421.10
0.551.20
0.641.30
0.701.40
0.751.50
0.872.0
0.943.0
0.985.0
0.9910.0
The inverse Lorentz Transformations
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

x = x´ + ut´
◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x´ = 0 in frame S´, at what x will
it be located in frame S after t´ = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
x = 0 + 0.1 c × 1 s = 0.1 c × 1 s

-u
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

x = x´ + ut´
◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x´ = 0 in frame S´, at what x will
it be located in frame S after t´ = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
x = 0 + 0.1 c × 1 s = 0.1 c × 1 s

◆ According to the Lorentz transformation?

-u
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

x = x´ + ut´
◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x´ = 0 in frame S´, at what x will
it be located in frame S after t´ = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
x = 0 + 0.1 c × 1 s = 0.1 c × 1 s

ntz transformation?
√ (1 – 0.12) = (0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
-u
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

x = x´ + ut´
◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x´ = 0 in frame S´, at what x will
it be located in frame S after t´ = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
x = 0 + 0.1 c × 1 s = 0.1 c × 1 s

ntz transformation?
√ (1 – 0.12) = (0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
-u

◆ According to S´, what appears to have

happened to the ruler of S?
 Exercise
◆ Compare Lorentz with Galilean transformations:

x = x´ + ut´
◆ Say that u = 0.1c. If an object is located at x´ = 0 in frame S´, at what x will
it be located in frame S after t´ = 1 s according to the Galilean
transformation?
x = 0 + 0.1 c × 1 s = 0.1 c × 1 s

ntz transformation?
√ (1 – 0.12) = (0.1 c × 1 s) / 0.995
-u

◆ According to S´, what appears to have

happened to the ruler of S? Also shrunk!
(no special reference frame)
 Time Dilation
◆ A strobe light located at rest in frame S´ flashes every ∆t´ seconds.
◆ What is the interval between flashes as measured in frame S ?
 Time Dilation
◆ A strobe light located at rest in frame S´ flashes every ∆t´ seconds.
◆ What is the interval between flashes as measured in frame S ?

◆ Two flashes are emitted in frame S´ at

t1´ and t2´, with x1´ = x2´
 Time Dilation
◆ A strobe light located at rest in frame S´ flashes every ∆t´ seconds.
◆ What is the interval between flashes as measured in frame S ?

◆ Two flashes are emitted in frame S´ at

t1´ and t2´, with x1´ = x2´

∆t > ∆t´ This effect is called time dilation.

 Time Dilation
◆ Replace the strobe light by a clock located at rest in frame S´. The second
hand of this clock ticks every 1s as measured in frame S´. What is the
time interval between ticks for the second hand of this clock as measured
in frame S?
◆ Following the previous derivation, ∆t > ∆t´. An observer in frame S
measures an interval of >1s between ticks for the second hand of the clock
at rest in frame S´.
◆ Thus, according to an observer in frame S, the clocks in frame S´ are
running more slowly than the clocks in frame S. This effect is known as
time dilation, whereby “moving clocks run (tick) slower.”

Clock in S’
 Time Dilation and Proper time

Clock in S’

◆ The time interval between two events is different when measured by two
different observers in uniform relative motion (no absolute time).
 Time Dilation and Proper time

Clock in S’

Or: ∆tmoving = Ɣ ∆trest

◆ The time interval between two events is different when measured by two
different observers in uniform relative motion (no absolute time).
◆ The shortest time interval is always measured by the clock at rest with
respect to the two events.
◆ This time interval measured by this clock is call the the proper time (for
two events at the same location but different times).
 Length contraction
◆ Suppose that a rod lies at rest along the x´-axis of frame S´. Let the
left end of the rod be at x1´ and the right end at x2´, so that the length
of the rod as measured in frame S´ is L´ = x 2´ − x1´. What is the length
of the rod as measured in frame S ?
 Length contraction
◆ From Equation

we have

with t1 = t2 (naturally both ends of the rod

are measured at the same time in frame S)
 Length contraction
◆ From Equation

we have

with t1 = t2 (naturally both ends of the rod

are measured at the same time in frame S)

L < L´: The moving rod is shorter, an effect know as length contraction.
 Length contraction and Proper length
◆ There is no such thing as absolute space (dimensions).
◆ For the rod which is at rest in frame S´, let’s call L´ = L rest. In frame S, let’s
call L = Lmoving as the rod is moving. Then

◆ The longest length of an object (or the distance

between two objects) is measured in the rest frame of
that object (the two objects).
◆ This length is called the proper length.

◆ Note that only lengths (dimensions) parallel to the

direction of relative motion are affected by length
contraction. Lengths (dimensions) perpendicular to
the direction of relative motion remain unchanged.
 Velocity Transformations in SR
◆ To derive the relativistic velocity transformations, we simply
need to differentiate the Lorentz transformations.
 Velocity Transformations in SR
◆ We first get a relation between dt´ and dt:

dt´ = 1 – uv /c 2
x dt
 Velocity Transformations in SR
◆ We then obtain dx´, dy´, dz´,and divide them by dt´, to get:
 Velocity Transformations in SR
◆ We then obtain dx´, dy´, dz´,and divide them by dt´, to get:

Notice that velocities in the y´ and z´ directions depend on u and v x. Why?

And even when vx = 0, velocities in the y´ and z´ directions depend on u.

 Velocity Transformations in SR
◆ To infer velocities in the S frame when given velocities in the
S´ frame, switch the primed and unprimed quantities and
replace u with –u to get the inverse Lorentz transformations
 Exercise

Clock in S’

◆ Exercise: Suppose your friend got a very serious disease with

no cure right now. He will die in 3 months. We expect that the
cure will be developed in 3 years. Is there a way to save your
friend?
◆ Hint: He can take a roundtrip on a very fast spaceship, so his
time will flow slower compared to the scientists on Earth.
 Exercise

Clock in S’

◆ Exercise: Suppose your friend got a very serious disease with

no cure right now. He will die in 3 months. We expect that the
cure will be developed in 3 years. Is there a way to save your
friend?
◆ Answer: ∆tproper < 3 months, ∆tmoving = 30 months, Ɣ> 10,
u>0.995c!
◆ What does it take to accelerate a spaceship to that speed?
 Lecture 8

Special Relativity

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