Navigational

Aids
Engr. Carlito S. Anatan
I. Introduction
Navigation, the art of directing the
movements of a craft from one point to
another along a desired path.

Finding the way from one place to another

is called NAVIGATION. Moving of an
aircraft from one point to another is the
most important part for any kind of
mission.
II. Methods of Navigation:

• A. Navigation by pilotage
• B. Celestial navigation
• C. Navigation by dead-reckoning
• D. Radio Navigation
A. Navigation by pilotage
In this method, the navigator fixes his position on
a map by observing known visible landmarks.

In air navigation, for example, when the ground

is visible, the navigator can see the principal
features on the ground, such as rivers, cots-lines
estuaries, hills, etc. and hereby, fix his position.
Even at night, light beacons, cities and towns
provide information about the position of the
craft.
B. Celestial navigation
Celestial navigation (also called astronomical
navigation) is accomplished by measuring the angular
position of celestial bodies.

Almanacs giving the position of celestial bodies at

various times (measured in terms of Greenwich Mean
Time) are readily available. The navigator measures the
elevation of the celestial body with a sextant and notes
the precise time at which the measurement is made with
a chronometer. These two measurements are enough to
fix the position of the craft on a face of the globe.
C. Navigation by dead-reckoning
In this method of navigation, the position of
the craft at any instant of time is calculated from
the previously determined position, the speed of
its motion with respect to earth along with the
direction of its motion (i.e. its velocity vector) and
the time elapsed.
This is the most common widely used
methods of navigation which requires some
means of finding the direction of motion of the
craft (called “track angle”) and a speed indicator.
 Navigation by dead-reckoning requires
some means of finding the direction of
motion of the craft (called the “tract
angle”) and a speed indicator. The first
requirement may be met by a magnetic
compass and the second by an instrument
such as the air-speed indicator in the
aircraft and the mechanical log in ships.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION
>is a system of dead-reckoning navigation in
which the instrument in the craft determine its
acceleration and successive integration, obtain
its velocity and displacement.
>a self-contained nature, immunity from jamming,
absence of any radiation and it’s usable at all
latitudes.
>navigation using motion sensors and computers
D. Radio Navigation
This method is based on the used of electromagnetic
waves to find the position of the craft.

The various techniques involve a dependence of the

craft on installations on land and are, therefore, not self-
contained systems of navigation. Similar to DR systems,
all these systems depend on the properties of rectilinear
propagation and constant velocity of electromagnetic
waves and the navigational parameters (direction,
distance, etc.) are obtained by direct or indirect
measurement of delay (delays) occurring in the
transmission.
Three commonly used methods are:
• (1). Inertial Guidance This system has computer and
other special devices that tell pilots where the plane
located are.

• (2). LORAN Long Range Navigation The plane has

equipment for receiving special radio signals sent out
continuous from transmitter stations. The signals will
indicate the plane location

• (3). GPS Global Positioning System. is the only system

today able to show your exact position on the earth any
time, anywhere, and any weather. The system receiver
on the aircraft will receive the signals from satellites
around the globe.
III. Final Approach and Landing Terminal:

A. ILS (Instrument Landing System)

- is the radio system enabling an aircraft to
locate the selected runway, adopt the
correct glideslope and approach in all
weather conditions by providing lateral,
vertical and distance to the threshold
information.
The system has three distinct elements:
• (1) VHF Localizer - which gives left/right
(lateral) guidance on to the extended runway
center line.

• (2) UHF Glide Path - which gives up/down

(vertical guidance with respect to a suitable
descent path at an angle of about 3 degrees
above the horizontal. and

• (3) VHF Marker Beacons - to indicate pre-

determined distances to the runway threshold.
LOCALIZER
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter
located at the end of the runway that operates in
the frequency range from 108.0 – 111.95 MHz
(odd tenths).

The localizer transmits two beams one on the

right side of the runway center line and one on
the left side of the runway center line. The beam
on the right side has a 150 Hz (blue)
modulation; the one on the left side has a 90 Hz
(yellow) modulation.
LOCALIZER COURSE SECTOR
The ILS Localizer course sector is
nominally 700 ft. wide at the threshold of
the runway. The ILS Localizer is adjusted
so that the difference in depth of
modulation (DDM) is 15.5% at points 350
ft. each side of the runway center line at
the runway threshold.
GLIDE SLOPE

The glide slope signal comes from a

transmitter at the beginning of the runway
that operates in the UHF band with a
frequency range from 329.3 MHz to 335.0
MHz. Glide slope receiving circuits are
tuned automatically whenever a localizer
frequency is tuned or selected.
 The glide slope transmits two beams to give vertical
guidance over the glide path. The glide path has an
angle of approximately 3 degrees. The glide slope
beams are just like localizer, modulated with 90 Hz and
150 Hz modulation signals.

These signals are radiated to produce two lobes, one

above the other. The upper lobe is modulated with 90
Hz, the lower lobe modulated at 150 Hz audio. The glide
slope is laterally aligned with the localizer path on a line
2.5 to 3 degrees above ground level where the audio
signals are equal.
SECTOR USABLE RANGE
0° to 1.35° None
Sector A 10 nautical miles minimum
Sector B none
Azimuth (horizontal) -/+ 8° of the runway
extended center line
MARKER BEACON PRINCIPLES
The marker beacon system consists of
a receiver, antenna mounted on the under-
side of the fuselage and a light assembly
on the instrument panel.
The marker beacon system gives
information about the distance to the
runway.
There are three marker beacons at fixed
distances from the runway:

They are called the outer, middle and

inner markers. Each marker has its own
modulation signal while their carriers have
the same frequency (75 MHz).
• The outer marker has 400 Hz modulation

• The middle marker has 1300 Hz

modulation

• The inner marker has a 3000 Hz

modulation
INDICATION

• Visual identification is by colored by three

lights are used to indicate as the aircraft
passes or fly over a marker. Blue is for
outer marker (OM), Amber is for middle
marker (MM), and White is for the inner
marker (IM) and in addition the audio tone
can be heard.
MLS (Microwave Landing System)
MLS designed to overcome the limitations of
ILS and to provide greater flexibility for satisfying
current and projected operational requirements
associated with precision approach and landing
guidance. The frequency moved from 5,031 to
5,090.7 MHz.

MLS comprises azimuth, elevation and

distance measuring functions which provide
continuous, accurate, three-dimensional position
information within a wide coverage volume.
B. GCA (Ground-Controlled Approach)

• GCA is used to locate an approaching

aircraft and guide it to a safe landing when
visibility is poor.
• The technique for talking down, is through
the use of both surveillance and precision
approach radar of an aircraft during its
approach so as to place it in a position for
landing.
GCA is made up of three major systems:

• A two-way radio system for communication

between the pilot and the controller.
• A search radar for locating the aircraft
within a 45-mile radius.
• A precision radar system for tracking the
aircraft during the 11-mile final approach to
the runway.
C. NDB (Non-Directional Beacons)

Are low-frequency transmitters

operating into an omni directional vertically
polarized antenna. Usually placed at the
ILS outer and middle marker beacon sites
where it is known as a compass locator.
NDB is used in modern aviation mostly for
instrument approaches
• In precision approaches, there will often be an
NDB co-located with the Outer Marker (OM). In
this case the marker is then referred to as a
LOM (Locator Outer Marker). 
• In non-precision approaches, the NDB may be
one of the fixes used in the approach. 
• Third, use of NDB’s is as a navigational aid
forming one or more fixes for an intersection.
• Last, there are non-precision NDB approaches.
NDB OPERATION
A low or medium frequency radio beacon
transmits non directional signals whereby the
pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can
determine bearings and "home" on the station.
These facilities normally operate in the
frequency band of 190 to 535 kHz and transmit
a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 Hz
modulation. All radio beacons except the
compass locators transmit a continuous three
letter identification in code except during voice
transmissions.
RADIO DIRECTION-FINDING
The earliest method of electronic navigation
was by direction-finding, i.e. the determination of
the direction of arrival of electromagnetic waves
at the receiving station.

The direction-finder may be located either on

the craft or on ground. In the former case, the
determination of the bearing of two or more fixed
stations will give a fix.
 In the latter, the ground station finds the
bearing of the craft and passes on the
information to the craft by a radio communication
channel. Both methods are in vogue.

Direction-finding may be carried out in any

region of the radio spectrum, though certain
frequencies are specifically allotted for
navigational purposes, in the LF/MF, HF, VHF
bands
ADF (Automatic Direction Finding)

ADF is a navigational aid that is used

for automatic determination of relative
bearing to a transmitting radio station or
non directional beacon (NDB). It is also
used for reception of weather information
and other broadcast programs.
 ADF system operates in the frequency
range from 190 to 1860 kHz. The ground
station transmits an amplitude modulated
signal in an omnidirectional pattern. The
receiver at the aircraft receives the
transmitted signal in a combined loop and
sense antenna whose output is then
calculated to give relative station bearing.
 The relative station output from ADF
receiver drives the bearing pointers in
Radio Magnetic Indicators (RMI) and
EHSI’s (Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicators) of the EFIS (Electronic Flight
Instrument System). The pointer position
with respect to the fixed lubber line is the
relative bearing while the position with
respect to the North of the compass card
is the magnetic bearing.
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING (ADF)
IV. Short Distance Navigation System

A. DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)

The distance measuring equipment is
a system combining ground-based and
airborne equipment to measure the
distance of the aircraft from the ground
facility.
It gives distance through the air (slant
range) from aircraft to a DME ground
station.
 It also shows the ground speed and
time to go to the station. The system has
an audio output for the station
identification tones. It is used primarily for
position fixing, enroute separation,
approach to an airport, avoiding protected
air space, holding at a given position or
calculating ground speeds.
DME THEORY OF OPERATION

The transmitter’s circuitry of the airborne DME

transceiver initiates the distance measuring action by
transmitting interrogation pulses to the ground station.
The ground station receives these interrogation and after
a fixed delay (50 µs), transmits reply pulses.

The airborne DME transceiver computes the slant

range to the ground station from the amount of time
elapsed between transmitting and receiving the pulse
pairs. Since the speed of radio wave is a constant and
known factor, the amount of time the signal travel is
proportional to the distance.
 The airborne portion of the DME
measures the amount of elapsed time and
converts this to the distance (slant range)
between the aircraft and the station.
Distance Measuring Equipment
 The DME system operates in the UHF
band and the frequencies are the same as
the military TACAN system. TACAN
(Tactical Air Navigation) transmits bearing
and distance information and has the
same function as the civil VOR/DME
combination. There are a number of
different arrangements for the ground
facilities.
There are a number of different arrangements for
the ground facilities.

• VOR/DME is an omni bearing and a DME station at the

same location.

• ILS/DME is a DME station at the same location

with the localizer on the runway.

• VOR/TAC is a civil omni bearing and a military TACAN

station in same location.

• TACAN is a military system that can only receive

the distance information of this station.
DME/VOR at the same location
DME CHANNELS

• The airborne DME transmits an

interrogation signal consisting of pairs of
RF pulses on a carrier frequency
determined by channel selected.
Interrogation affected on any one of 126
channels, separated by 1 MHz increment
in the frequencies ranges 1025-1150 MHz
 The ground station replies with similar pulse
pairs on a carrier frequency 63 MHz above or
below that of the interrogation signal. There are
252 reply channels, separated by 1 MHz in the
frequency range 962-1213 MHz. The reply
channels are divided into two groups identified
as X- and Y- channels. The X-channel
frequencies are within ranges of 962-1024 MHz
and 1151-1213 MHz. The Y-channel
frequencies are within the ranges of 1025-1150
MHz.
ATC (Air Traffic Control) TRANSPONDER
The air traffic control transponder works together with
an ATC ground radar system. When it receives an
interrogation from the ground, it transmits back aircraft
identification and altitude.

The purpose of the system is to give:

- control over aircraft altitude separation
- identification of each aircraft
- immediate warning of an aircraft in an emergency
situation
- minimum voice communication and therefore
improve air safety.
General System of ATC works as follows:

• Air traffic control uses two radar systems,

a primary surveillance radar (PSR) and a
secondary surveillance radar (SSR). The
primary radar is surveillance or search
radar. It detects aircraft and makes them
visible on an indicator. The ground
controller now knows the position
(distance and direction) of the aircraft.
 The secondary surveillance radar (SSR) or
ATC antenna turns simultaneously with the
primary radar. This SSR antenna transmits an
interrogation signal at a frequency of 1030 MHz.
There are three types of interrogations: MODE A,
MODE B and MODE C. Each interrogation has
two pulses. The difference between mode A, B
and C interrogation is the time between the two
pulses. Mode A has 8 micro secs, for B has 17
micro secs and for C has 21 micro secs.
ATC RADAR SYSTEM
RADIO ALTIMETER

The Low Range Radio Altimeter (LRRA)

system measures the absolute aircraft height
above the terrain.
The RA system measures the time it takes a
transmitted signal to go from the aircraft to the
ground and back. The system uses one antenna
to transmit a signal and a second antenna to
receive the reflected signal. The time between
transmit and receive equals twice the distance
between the aircraft and the ground.
Radio altitude principle
VOR (Very high frequency Omni directional Range)

VOR is a short range navigation aid operating

in the VHF band which provides the pilot with a
track to select to the VOR beacon and also
deviation left or right of any selected track.

The system comprises airborne receiving

equipment and strategically located ground
transmitters. Any number of aircraft can use a
single VOR beacon simultaneously.
VOR BEACON
VOR beacon operates on one radio
frequency in the band 108.0 to 117.95 MHz.
Between these limits, frequencies are located to
VOR with a channel spacing of 50 kHz, except
that frequencies ending in 0.10, 0.3, 0.5 0.7 and
0.9 between 108 and 112 MHz reserved for ILS.
VOR beacon has a sub-carrier of 9960 Hz,
which is itself frequency modulated 30 Hz with
deviation of 480 Hz. The 30 Hz component is the
reference phase and has also 30 Hz amplitude
modulation as the variable phase.
VOR DEVIATION

The principle of VOR deviation involves determining

the difference between selected course and VOR
bearing. VOR magnetic bearing sine and cosine signals
are combined with selected course information. The
difference between these two parameters is the VOR
deviation. For a difference of 5 degrees right or 5
degrees left, the receiver output is standardized at 75
microamperes which causes a VOR deviation bar
deflection of one dot. For a difference of 10 degrees, the
receiver output is 150 microamperes which produces a
two-dot deflection.
VOR DEVIATION PROCESSING
TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation)

TACAN is a microwave pulse system

that provides highly accurate bearing and
range information from a shipboard or
ground radio beacon.

LFR (Low-Frequency Range)

The range stations that provide four
aircraft course legs (the overlapping of two
figure-8 patterns
V. Long Distance Navigation System

• A. Station Referenced:

1. Ground-Referenced – navigational aids

installed in therapira.

2. Satellite-Referenced- fix is determined by

measurement of the angle of arrival of the
emission from the ground by employing
interferometric techniques in the satellite.
B. Self-Contained:

CNS (Communication, Navigation, Surveillance)

Guidelines for transition to the new communications,

navigation, and surveillance (CNS) systems should be
such as to encourage early equipage by users through
the earliest possible accrual of the system benefits.
Although a transition period during which dual equipage,
both airborne and ground, will be necessary in order to
ensure the reliability and availability of the new system,
guidelines should be aimed at minimizing this period to
the extent practicable.
INS (Inertial Navigation System)

INS is a system of dead-reckoning

navigation in which the instrument in the
craft determines its acceleration and
successive integration, obtain its velocity
and displacement. The system is entirely
self-contained and can be used both on
earth, under the sea and space.
VI. Hyperbolic Systems- operates on the
principle of hyperbola

A. LORAN (Long Range Navigation)

An electronic method of determining

ship position by the reception of signals
from transmitting stations of known
location.
B. DECCA

DECCA is a continuous-wave hyperbolic system

operating in the 70 to 130 kHz band.

The Decca Navigator System was an early

precursor to positioning systems like the American GPS
system and the planned European Galileo positioning
system. It used radio signals from three transmitters to
fix a position. The receiver fixed a position by measuring
the phase shift of signals received from the three
transmitters. One consequence was that positions were
not unique.
C. OMEGA

OMEGA is a navigation system

developed by US Navy in 1957. It is a
hyperbolic system which works in the very
low frequency region and has a very long
base line of the order of 7,000 km.
VII. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

A system that measures distance (and

usually direction) to an object by
determining the amount of time required
by an electro-magnetic energy to travel
and return from the object.
Radar basic types fall into two broads
categories:
• A. CW (continuous wave) radar–CW or
continuous wave, radars are so called because
the transmitters used in these systems transmit
almost continuously. One of the simplest forms
of CW radar is so called doppler radar,
wherein any reflecting object moving toward or
away from the transmitter will return echo
signals slightly different in the frequency from
the transmitted frequency due to doppler shift.
• The other most familiar type of CW radar
is frequency modulated, or FM radar.
This is type of radar is differ from the first,
because the frequency modulation signal
transmitted from an fm system permits
range measurement to be made on both
moving and stationary targets.
• B. Pulse radar – as the name implies, the
transmitted energy from a pulse radars
system is in the form of short burst of RF
energy.

Pulse radar system is divided into two

general groups: (1) primary pulse radar
and (2) secondary pulse radar.
• Primary pulse radar
- is the name given to the simple echo system
wherein the target reflects the transmitted
energy from the system and the time lapse
between transmission and reception is
measured and converted to range information.
One of the limitations is that it does not supply
positive identification of targets.
• Secondary pulse radar
- radar used to overcome identification problem
and it was developed to supplement primary
radar information.
VIII. RADAR SYSTEM TYPES

• ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar)

• ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar)
• ASDE (Airport Surface Detection
Equipment)
• ATCBI (Air Traffic Control Beacon
Interrogator)
• PAR (Precision Approach Radar)
IX. GPS (Global Positioning System)

• The Global Positioning System, usually

called GPS (the US military refers to it as
NAVSTAR GPS), is a
satellite navigation system used for
determining one's precise location and
providing a highly accurate time reference
almost anywhere on Earth or in Earth
orbit. It uses an intermediate circular orbit
(ICO) satellite constellation of at least 24
satellites.
X. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)

• A system used aboard navy ships for sonic and

ultra sonic underwater detection, ranging,
sounding and communications.
• SONAR is a device that is used primarily for the
detection and location of underwater objects by
reflecting acoustic waves from them, or by the
interception of acoustic waves from an
underwater, surface, or above-surface acoustic
source.
RADAR EQUATIONS

1
 Pt At Ap2  2  4
Rmax  
 (4 )3 P '
 min 
 EXAMPLE
Calculate the maximum range of an X-band radar which operates at
10 GHz with peak pulse power of 750 kW, if its minimum receivable
power is W, the effective capture area of its antenna is 5 m and the
radar cross-sectional area of the target is 25 m.
SOLUTION:
1
 Pt Ae At  4
Rmax  
 4 2
Pmin 

1
  4
 2

 (750 k )(25)(5) 
Rmax  2 
 4  3  10 8
  13 
  10G  (10 ) 
   

Rmax  802.365 km
EXAMPLE:
A radar transmitter has a power of 25 kW and operates
at a frequency of 11.5 GHz. The radar pulse reflects
from a target 20 km away with a radar cross-section of
10 m². Calculate the received signal power if the antenna
gain is 20 dB.
SOLUTION: and express the antenna gain as a power ratio

Pt Ap2  2 At  20 
Ap  anti log  
P  10 
(4 )3 R 4 Ap  100
First, solve for the wavelength
for the received power
c 25k (100)2 (0.0261) 2 (10)
  0.0261 m P
f (4 )3 (20k )4
3 108 P  5.358 1015W

11.5G
MINIMUM USABLE RANGE
cW
Rmin 
2
where
Rmin  minimum usable range

c  speed of light
W  pulse duration

EXAMPLE:
A pulse radar emits pulses with a duration of 5 µs
and a repetition rate of 1500 Hz. Calculate the
maximum and minimum range for this radar.
SOLUTION

c and for the minimum range

Rmax  cW
2f Rmin 
2
3  108 (3 108 )(5 )
Rmax  Rmin 
2(150) 2
Rmin  750 m
Rmax  100 km
DUTY CYCLE
• EXAMPLE
A radar transmitter has a peak pulse power of 500 kW, a PRR of 1000 pps
and a pulse duration of 0.85 µs. Determine:
a) the maximum unambiguous range
b) the duty cycle
c) the average transmitted power
SOLUTION
a) b)
cT
Rmax  dc = W x PRR
2 dc = (0.85µ)(1000) x 100
dc = 0.085%
1 
(3 108 )  
 1000 
Rmax  c)
2 Pave
dc 
Rmax  150 km Ppk

Pave  dc  Ppk
Pave  425W
CW DOPPLER RADAR

EXAMPLE
A police radar operates at a frequency of
1.024 GHz in direct line with a car. The
reflected signal from the car is shifted 275
Hz in frequency. Determine the speed of
the car in miles per hour.
SOLUTION

fD Converting to mi/hr

VR 
2 m  1km   1mi  3600 s 
VR  40.283    
3  108 s  1000m   1.609km  1hr 

1.024G
VR  90.13 mi/hr
  0.293 m

(275)(0.293)
VR 
2
VR  40.283 m/s
 EXAMPLE
(ECE Board Problem, November 2002) What is the peak power of a
radar having a pulse width of 1µs and PRR of 900 Hz? The average
power is 45 W?

SOLUTION
dc  W ( PRR)or
Pave
dc 
Ppk

dc  900  106
45
900  s 
Ppk

Ppk  50 kW
EXAMPLE
Determine the lowest blind speed for MTI radar
operating at 5 GHz when the PRF is 3 kHz.
SOLUTION

n PRF
Vb  1(0.06)(3k )
2 Vb  2
But the wavelength is

 0.06 m Vb  90 m/s
Thank you for listening.
God Bless.