Unit – 4

Statistical Methods
Tabulation
Systematic presentation of numerical data in rows and columns according to certain
characteristics . Rows are horizontal arrangements and columns are vertical
arrangements
Types of Tabulation
1.One way Tabulation
When data are tabulated to one characteristic it is said as simple tabulation
Eg.tabulation of population of one religion
2.Two way Tabulation
When data are tabulated on two characteristic it is called as Double tabulation
Eg.tabulation of population religion and sex
3.Complex tabulation
When data are tabulated on many characteristic it is called as complex tabulation
Eg.tabulation of population religion, sex and literacy
Analysis of Data
It is a process of inspecting, transforming and modelling data with the useful
information ,suggesting conclusions and supporting decision making
Types of Data Analysis
1. Univariate Data Analysis
is the simplest form of analyzing data. “Uni”means “one”, so in other words
your data has only one variable. It doesn't deal with relationships
Eg.cricket bats – 10,balls – 15, Gloves - 52
2.Bivariate Data Analysis
It is  used to find out if there is a relationship between two sets of values. It
usually involves the variables X and Y.
Eg. X – 1,5,8,7,9,4 Y – 5,4,8,6,7,8
3.Multivariate Data Analysis
It refers to any statistical technique used to analyze data that arises from
more than one variable.
Eg.
Process of Data Analysis
Stage 1 – Data cleaning
Any errors are their they used to correct it
Stage 2 – Initial Data Analysis
Answering the original research questions
Stage 3 – Check the quality of Data
Check the types of data frequency count, descriptive statistics
Stage 4 – Measurement of Quality
Data should be in literature structure
Stage 5 – Initial Transformations
Check whether any missing data is their or not
Stage 6 – Characteristics of data sample
Structure of sample should be accurately described
Stage 7 – Final stage of the initial data Analysis
Data should be stated clearly and then start the analysis
NOTE :The following are discussed in class with board work so I didn’t mentioned in the slide,
better refer your notes
I Arithmetic
• Arithmetic mean
• Arithmetic median
• Arithmetic mode
• Step Deviation method
• Standard Deviation method
Above mentioned are continuous series
II Hypothesis
• Testing of Hypothesis
• Types of hypothesis
• Types of Errors
• Types of Tail Test
• Steps / Procedure in Hypothesis Tests
III Parametric Test
• Z Test
• t Test
• Chi – square test
IV Annova ( One way )
Discriminate Analysis
It is a statistical analysis to predict a categorical dependent variable (called a
grouping variable) by one or more continuous or binary independent
variables (called predictor variables).
Purpose of Discriminate Analysis
The  main purpose of discriminate function analysis is to predict group
membership based on a linear combination of the interval variables. The
procedure begins with a set of observations where both group membership
and the values of the interval variables are known.
Assumptions of Discriminate Analysis
• Observations are a random sample
• Each predictor variable is normally distributed
• Allocations for the dependent categories in the initial classification is
correctly classified
• There must be at least two groups or categories with each case belonging to
only one group
• Group sizes should not be grossly different
Factor Analysis
It is a statistical technique that can uncover relationship patterns
underlying hundreds of interacting phenomenon such as
changes in interest rates , inflation, and/or oil prices
Objectives of factor Analysis
• Identify the number of factors
• Define the factors as functions of the measured variables
• Study the factors which have been defined
Conjoint Analysis
It is multivariate technique developed to understand how
respondents develop preferences for any type of object.
This is based on the premise that consumers evaluate the value of
an object by combining the separate amounts of value provided
by each attribute
Multidimensional Scaling(MDS)
It is a statistical technique that helps the analyst to identify key
dimensions underlying respondents evaluation of objects
It is often used in the marketing to identify key dimensions
underlying customer evaluations of products , services or
companies
Types of MDS
i.Classical MDS
It is also known as Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA),
Torgerson Scaling or Torgerson–Gower scaling. It takes an
input matrix giving dissimilarities between pairs of items
and outputs a coordinate matrix whose configuration
minimizes a loss function called strain
ii. Non classical MDS
Dissimilarity data arises when we have some set of objects, and instead of
measuring the characteristics of each object, we can only measure how
similar or dissimilar each pair of objects
iii. Metric MDS
It is a superset of classical MDS that generalizes the optimization procedure to a
variety of loss functions and input matrices of known distances with
weights and so on. A useful loss function in this context is called stress,
which is often minimized using a procedure called stress majorization.
Metric MDS minimizes the cost function called “Stress” which is a residual
sum of squares
iv. Generalized MDS
An extension of metric multidimensional scaling, in which the target space is an
arbitrary smooth non-Euclidean space. In cases where the dissimilarities
are distances on a surface and the target space is another surface, GMDS
allows finding the minimum-distortion embedding of one surface into
another
Cluster Analysis
It is a collection of statistical methods ,which identifies groups of
sample that behave similarly or show similar characteristics
Steps in doing a cluster analysis
The Proximities Martix
I. Univariate measures
Eg. Problem as X , Y ,Z ,A value as 11,11,13,18
II. Multivariate measures
Eg. Problem as X , Y ,Z ,A value as
X1 = 25,33,34,35
X2 = 11,11,13,18
Note : In the cluster analysis better check the diagonals are ZERO
and The diagonal are similar in Nature then the problem is
correct
SPSS
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) is a
software package used in statistical analysis of
data. This software is used to perform only
statistical operations.
It was acquired by IBM in 2009, in 2014 it was
officially renamed as IBM SPSS.
Uses of SPSS
• Processing Questionnaires
• Reporting Tables and Graphs
• Analyzing: Means,Chi-square,Regression
• Statistical Analysis.
Limitations of SPSS
• It cant be used to analyze a very large data set.
• Limited functionality for complex analysis.
• Difficult to edit the output
• Inexperienced users may be unknowingly
applying the wrong methods.