Legal English Atty Glenn

I.
The Parts of a Sentence

When a number of words are put together in such a way that they express a
complete thought, you have a sentence. In present day writing, twenty words is
about the average length of a sentence. There are two parts of a sentence, namely:
1. The subject, which is a 2. The predicate which is a group of

group of words that a clause or words that makes a statement about
sentence makes a statement the subject. The predicate usually
about, and tells what the subject is doing or
what is happening to the subject.
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Examples
✘The lawyer had objected to the evidence.
✘Getting a law degree can be a difficult process.
In the examples above, the subjects are in italics; the rest of the
sentences are the predicates.
Subjects are nouns, pronouns, or phrases used as nouns. Predicates are

verbs and the words used to explain the action or condition.
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1. Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that are closely related but does not contain a subject
or predicate. A phrase may be used as a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb.
Examples:
Noun: Waiting for the client has kept me in the office all morning.
Verb: That research work could have been done earlier.
Adjective: The building with a satellite disc on the roof has been
converted to a big restaurant.
Adverb: The price is higher out of season.
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1. Phrases
A phrase that is essential to the meaning of the sentence is called
restrictive. A phrase which is actually a parenthetical comment is called
nonrestrictive and is usually set off by a comma.
Restrictive: The basement in my office is used by several people.
Nonrestrictive: I wonder, by the way, who will be named as the
executrix of the last will and testament.
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2. clauses
A clause is a group of words which has a subject and a predicate. A main
clause can stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause is incomplete and is used
with a main clause to express a related idea.

Examples:
Main Clause: This is the man who sold me the pornographic
magazine.
Subordinate: I enjoy walking our dog, which we bought last
week.
Clause: When I have time, I like to work out at the gym.
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II. Important points in
Grammar
A. nouns
The formation of noun plurals must also be in the fingertips of law students. The
trouble is, they tend to take these simple points of grammar for granted. Here
are some easy guidelines.
1. Many nouns form the plural by adding s to the singular.

Example:
Stores ballisticians clinics notes
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A. nouns
2. Nouns ending in f, fe, and ff:
(1) Some nouns ending in f, fe, and ff form their plurals regularly by adding s to
the singular.
Examples:
Giraffes proofs plaintiffs chiefs
(2) However, some nouns ending in f and fe change these letters to v and add es
to form the plural.
Examples:
halves knives wives thieves
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A. nouns
(3) Common nouns ending in s, sh, ch, x, and z form their plurals by adding es
to the singular if an extra syllable is needed in pronouncing the plural.

Examples:
annexes churcheswitnesses yeses
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A. nouns
3. Nouns ending in y:

(1) On the other hand, nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their
plurals by changing y to i and adding es.

Examples:
armies diaries families
authorities discoveries skies
cities duties ladies
fallacies parties vacancies
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A. nouns
(2) Also, nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, except those ending in gay,
form their plurals in the usual way by adding s to the singular.
Examples:
attorneys journeys keys valleys

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A. nouns
4. Nouns ending in o form their plurals by adding s or e, but there are many
exceptions and alternatives to this rule. It is advisable to consult a dictionary when
in doubt.

(1) Many common nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel form their plurals by
adding s to the singular.
Examples:
cameos patios radios rodeos
portfolios ratios studios
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A. nouns
(2) Likewise, most common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form their
plurals by adding es to the singular.
Examples:
embargoes manifestoes noes
heroes torpedoes vetoes
(3) Some nouns ending in o, form teir plurals by adding either s or es to the singular.
Examples:
cargos or mottos or mottoes provisos or
cargoes manifestos or manifestoes provisos
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A. nouns
5. Also, some nouns form their plurals by a change in an internal vowel.
Examples:
feet men mice teeth women
6. Some nouns have the same form in the plural as in the singular.
Examples:
aircraft deer salmon chassis grass series
corps goose sheep
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A. nouns
Some of these nouns are pluralized when they represent several species.
Examples:
The deers of Nueva Vizcaya grasses found on the rice fields
7. However, some nouns are always plural. They have no singular form in the same
sense.
Examples:
annals earnings scales
assets goods scissors
headquarters trousers ceramics
credentials proceeds
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A. nouns
8. Certain nouns may be used as singular or as plural according to their meaning.

Examples:
Acoustics (the science) is studied by sound technicians.
The acoustics (acoustic qualities) of the church are very poor.
Athletics (athletic training) is part of the school program.
Athletics (sports) are popular with our undergraduate students.
Politics (in general sense) was behind his appointment in office.
The politics (as opinions) of Senator Biazon is not persuasive.
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A. nouns
9. But still, some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning.
Examples:
brothers (kin) brethren (class or society)
cloths(kinds of cloth) clothes (wearing apparel)
indices (in mathematics) indexes (in books)
10. Conversely, some nouns plural in form are singular in use and therefore take a
singular verb.
Examples:
aeronautics economics molasses civics news
whereabouts
A. nouns
11. Most compound nouns form the plural by pluralizing the fundamental part of
the word.
Examples:
adjutants general trade unions
governors general vice presidents
spelling matches
A. nouns
(1) When the compound is made up of a noun and a preposition, a noun and a
prepositional phrase, or a noun and a verb, the noun is normally pluralized.
Examples:
bills of lading fillers-in passers-by
brothers-in-law runners-up
commanders-in-chieflookers-on
A. nouns
(2) If compounds are written as one word (solid), their plurals are formed
according to the usual rules for nouns.
Examples:
businessman cupfulls undersecretaries
bylaws stockholders weekends
A. nouns
(3) When the first element of a compound is derived from a verb, the plurals is
formed on the last element.
Examples:
castaways leftovers runaways
go-betweens letdowns shut-ins
handouts makeups strikeovers
A. nouns
12. Nouns that retain their foreign endings form their plurals as follows: those
ending in a change a to ae; those ending in us change to i; those ending in um
change to a; those ending in on change to a; those ending in is change to es.
Many nouns retain their foreign plurals for formal and scientific material and
use the English plurals in nontechnical or informal writing.
A. nouns
Some examples:
a to ae alumna – alumnae (f)
antenna – antennae/antennas (radio)
formula – formulae/formulas
minutia – minutiae

A. nouns
Some examples:
us to i alumnus – alumni (m)
focus – foci/focuses
fungus – fungi/funguses
genius – genii/geniuses
syllabus – syllabi/syllabuses

A. nouns
Some examples:
um to a addendum – addenda erratum – errata
curriculum – curricula/curriculums
dictum – dicta/dictums
gymnasium – gymnasia/gymnasiums
memorandum – memoranda/memorandoms
referendum – referenda/referendum
ultimatum – ultimate/ultimatums
A. nouns
Some examples:
on to a criterion – criteria
phenomenon – phenomena/phenomenons
thesis – theses
us to es analysis – analyses parenthesis – parentheses
basis – bases synopsis – synopses
crisis – crises thesis – theses
emphasis – emphases hypothesis – hypotheses
A. nouns
The following nouns also retain their foreign form and in some cases have also an English
plural.
appendix appendices, appendixes
beau beaux, beaus
chateau chateaux, chateaus Note that agenda and data, though
plural in form, are usually
dilettante dilettante, dilettantes considered as singular collective
nouns.
index indices, indexes
madame mesdames
monsieur messieurs
tableau tableaux, tableaus
A. nouns
13. Proper nouns form their plurals by adding s to the singular es when the word
ends in s, z, ch, sh, or zh.

Examples:
(the) Cruzes Santoses Busches

(1) Some proper nouns representing nationalities have the same form in the plural
as in the singular.
Examples:
Chinese Japanese
A. nouns
14. Plurals of letters, signs, symbols, figures, and abbreviations used as nouns are
formed by adding s or an apostrophe and s. The omission of the apostrophe is
gaining ground, but in some cases it must be retained for clarity, as with letters.
Examples: Dot your I’s
a’s, A’s ABCs or ABC’s apts. and cross
your t’s.
I’s, I’s GIs or GI’s depts.
Example:
6s and 7s or IOUs or Iou’s nos.
She is in her
6’s and 7’s IQs or IQ’s late 30s (or
30’s)
A. nouns
15. The plurals of words used as nouns are formed by adding s if the word ends
with a consonant, and an apostrophe and s with a vowel sound.
Examples:
ifs and buts wherefores ups and downs
ins and outs yeas and nays oh’s and ah’s
A. nouns
16. There are nouns which are often confused. Here are some of them together with
their examples:
16.1 House and Home
(a) A House is any building used for dwelling.
Examples:
Wrong: Many new homes have been built after the Mt. Pinatubo
eruption.

Right: Many new houses have been built after the Mt. Pinatubo
eruption.
A. nouns
(b) A Home is the particular house in which one is living.
Wrong: The show is over. We should go to your house now.

Right: The show is over. We should go home now
A. nouns
16.2 Street and Road.

(a) A Street is a way in a town with buildings on the sides.
Wrong: The roads of the town of Narvacan are narrow.
Right: The streets of the town of Narvacan are narrow.

(b) A Road usually denotes a way leading from one town to another. Wrong:
Which is the street to the town of Pinili?
Right: Which is the road to the town of Pinili?

A. nouns
16.3 Story and History
(a) A Story is an account of events which may or may not be true.
Wrong: The teacher told me an interesting history.
Right: The teacher told me an interesting story.
(b) History is a systematic record of past events.
Wrong: We discussed the story of the Mangyans of Mindoro.

Right: We discussed the history of the Mangyans of Mindoro.

A. nouns
16.4 Habit and Custom.
(a) A Habit belongs to the individual.
Wrong: Telling lies is a very bad custom in the practice of law. Right:
Telling lies is a very bad habit in the practice of law.

(b) Custom belongs to the society or country.
Wrong: The Tausugs have strange habits.
Right: The Tausugs have strange customs.

A. nouns
16.5 Cause and Reason.
(a) A Cause is that which produces a result.
Wrong: What is the reason of a jail riot?
Right: What is the cause of a jail riot?
(b) Reason is that which explains or justifies a result.

Wrong: You have a good cause for postponing the hearing of the case.
Right: You have a good reason for postponing the hearing of the case.
A. nouns
16.6 Scene and Scenery.
(a) Scene refers to one particular place.
Wrong: The scenery is of a romantic sunset.
Say:The scene is of a romantic sunset.

(b)Scenery refers to the general appearance of the country. This word cannot be
plural.
Wrong: The scene in Banaue Rice Terraces is breathtaking.
Right: The scenery in Banaue Rice Terraces is breathtaking.
A. nouns
16.8 Shade and Shadow.
(a) Shade is a place sheltered from the sun.
Wrong: That large mango tree makes a nice shadow for
schoolchildren.
Right: That large mango tree makes a nice shade for
schoolchildren.

(b) Shadow is a shade of a distinct form as of a tree, a man, etc.
Wrong: My pet dog Cookie saw his shade in the water. Right:
My pet dog Cookie saw his shadow in the water.
A. nouns
16.7 Centre and Middle.
(a) Centre is a definite point.
Wrong: Can you find the middle of the table where the evidence
was found?
Right: Can you find the centre of the table where the
evidence was found?
(b) Middle is the indefinite space around or near the centre.
Wrong: The victim was in the centre of the street when the accident
happened.
Right: The victim was in the middle of the street when the accident
happened.
A. nouns
16.8 Shade and Shadow.
(a) Shade is a place sheltered from the sun.
Wrong: That large mango tree makes a nice shadow for
schoolchildren.
Right: That large mango tree makes a nice shade for
schoolchildren.

(b)Shadow is a shade of a distinct form as of a tree, a man, etc.
Wrong: My pet dog Cookie saw his shade in the water.
Right: My pet dog Cookie saw his shadow in the water.
A. nouns
16.9 Customer and Client.
(a) A Customer is a person at a shop or a business establishment.
Wrong: That internet store has plenty of clients.
Right: That internet store has plenty of costumers.

(b) A Client is a person who is served by a lawyer or a law office.
Wrong: Atty. Gus Macam has plenty of costumers.
Right: Atty. Gus Macam has plenty of costumers.
A. nouns
16.10 Stranger for Guest
A “guest” is usually a friend who comes to our house for a visit, while a
“stranger” is a person born in another country and speaking a foreign
language.
Wrong: They had some strangers in the party last night.

Right: They had some guests in the party last night.
A. nouns
16.11 Foot for Leg.
“Leg” is the part of the body from the hip down to the ankle; and, “foot” is
the part below the ankle. (“Hand” must also be carefully distinguished from
arm.)

Wrong: I hurt my foot – if the injury is anywhere above the
ankle.
Right: I hurt my leg.

A. nouns
16.12 Gentleman for Man.
Use “gentleman” only when referring to a man’s character: as, “He is a
real gentleman”; or, “He is not a gentleman.”

Wrong: I have met a fat gentlemen today.
Right: I have met a fat man today.
A. nouns
16.13 Individual for Person.
“Individual” is used to a single person as opposed to the group: as, “The
individual must act for the good of the community.”

Wrong: Only five individuals were present in the
stockholders meeting.
Right: Only five persons were present in the
stockholders meeting.
A. nouns
16.14 Men for People.
“People” and not “men” should be used when the reference is to human
beings in general.
Wrong: All the streets were full of men during the fiesta.
Right: All the streets were full of people during the
fiesta.
A. nouns
16.15 Cost for Price
“Price” is the amount of money paid by the customer; “cost” is the amount
paid by the shopkeeper. But we can say “How much does it cost?” This must
be distinguished from “value.” “Value” is the usefulness or importance of
something: as for example: The value of milk as a food or the value of
education. “Face value” on the other hand is the amount printed on a piece of
paper money or on a postage stamp.
Wrong: What is the cost of this law book?
Right: What is the price of this law book?
A. nouns
16.16 Ground for Floor.
The “floor” is the part of the room on which we walk: The “ground” is
outside the house.
Wrong: When I entered the room, I saw the victim lying on

the ground.
Right: When I entered the room, I saw the victim lying on
the floor.
A. nouns
16.17 Place for Room.
“Place” cannot be used in the sense of “room,” which means here

“unoccupied space.”
Wrong: Is there place for Carol in the car?

Right: Is there room for Carol in the car?
b. pronouns
Use for Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns agree with their antecedent in gender and number, but their
case depends upon their construction in the clause in which they appear.

1. The normative case (I, you, she, he, it; we, you, they) is used:
(1) as the subject of a verb
Examples:
I shall finish the report on Tuesday.
You received a fair price for the real estate property.
They always pay their electric bills promptly.
b. pronouns
(2) as a predicate complement; that is, a pronoun following some form of the
verb to be takes the same case after it takes before it.
Examples:
I think it was they who called the police.
If you were he, would you move to Manila?
Yes, it is I.
It was she who volunteered to distribute the documents.
b. pronouns
There is a tendency to use the objective case of pronouns following to be: it’s
me, it was her, it’s him, it was us. This is discouraged in legal writing. Reason:
Legal writing is always formal.
Even in speaking, it is possible to say, “It’s I” without being considered

pompous. It is a question of formality and presence.

b. pronouns
(3) In apposition with the subject of a verb.

Examples:
Several delegates, he among them, will state their position at
the next meeting.

Most of the team, at least we from the upper classes, are in
favor of holding extra meetings.
b. pronouns
(4) as the complement of an infinitive. (When the infinitive has no subject, the
pronoun following to be is in the nominative case to agree with the subject of the
sentence.)

Examples:
Marcial seems to be he who made the protest.
The speakers are to be they who are running for election.
b. pronouns
2. The objective case (me, you, her, him, us, them) is used:
(1) as the object of a verb
Examples:
The boss trusted her to make out the monthly payroll.
The members of the Board unanimously appointed him
chairman.
Our lawyer advised him and me to sign the contract of lease.
b. pronouns
(2) as the indirect object of a verb
Examples:
Last year the company gave him a free world tour.
The witness told us nothing but the truth.
(3) in apposition with the object of a verb

Examples:
Justice Callejo fined us, both me, and my brother
The President asked them all, Cymthia, Mario, and her, to stay
in the office up to eight o’clock.
b. pronouns
(4) as subject of an infinitive
Examples:
The Board invited him and me to be present. (not he and I)
I wish you would let him and me to read the Prosecutors
Resolution. (not he and I)

(5) as object of an infinitive
Examples:
The Vice President asked me to invite him to the seminar on
arbitration.
The buyer asked us to meet her at the coffee shop.
b. pronouns
(6) as complement of an infinitive. (if the infinitive to be has a subject, that
subject is in the objective case. Thus, the pronoun that follows the infinitive must
be in the objective case, following the rule that the verb to be takes the same case
after it has before it.)

Examples:
The judge mistook he to be me.
We thought the negotiators to be them.

b. pronouns
(7) as the object of a preposition
Examples:
No instructions were received from them this month.
The outcome of the case depend on us.
(8) Notice that when a pronoun follows as or than, it takes the

form it would have if the clause were completed.
Examples:
Joey is more efficient then I (I am).
Simon is not so precise as he (as he is).
b. pronouns
Examples:
The Arroyos are better travelers than we (we are).
We like her sister as much as her (as we do her).
I trust Ramel more than him (than I do him).
3. On the other hand, the possessive case (my, mine, your, yours, his,
her, hers, its, ours, their, theirs) is used:
(1) to donate possession and to complete the predicate when the
noun is omitted. (Note: there is no apostrophe before the s in the
possessive of personal pronouns.)
b. pronouns
Examples:
This book is his (hers).
Is this sweepstakes tickets yours (theirs)?
The idea was ours, the details were his.
(2) to form a double possessive.
Example:
This presentation of yours makes the report interestingly clear.
That property of theirs straddles Mount Banahaw.

b. pronouns
Compound Personal Pronouns
Compound personal pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,

ourselves, yourselves, themselves) are pronouns that shows by its form whether it
refers to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
of. They are used in two ways:
b. pronouns
1. For emphasis (intensive use) 2. For expressing action as turned back upon
Examples: the subject (reflective use). This occurs

infrequently in legal writing.
He himself will pay the docket fees.
Examples:
I myself have tried to respond to Judge
They will repent themselves by such risky
Pacquing’s difficult questioning.
activities.
He convinced himself that the plan will not
be carried out.
b. pronouns
Compound personal pronouns should not be used as substitutes for

personal pronouns.
Examples:
The Doctor gave the X-ray results to Carmen and me. (not myself)
Joseph, Phillip, and I bought the gift. (not myself)

b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a

pronoun occurring earlier in the sentence and connects a dependent clause to the
main clause. It is also a substitute word that refers to its antecedent and stands for
that antecedent in a subordinate clause.
The most frequently used relative pronouns are who, that, which, and what.
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Examples:
The whole class elected Rina Jabinal, who has had many years of experience in
accounting.
The car that we wanted has been sold at public auction.
The Handbook on Legal Counseling and Interviewing, which you borrowed a week
ago, is now due.
Who is the only one of the relative pronouns that changes its form to indicate case
(who, whose, whom, as well as whoever, whomever). Before its case can be determined,
the function it plays in a sentence must be decided.
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Who, whose, and whom (as well as whoever and whomever) refer to
persons. That refers to animals, persons, or things and is used to introduce
restrictive clauses. Which refers to lower animals, things, and ideas, and
introduces nonrestrictive clause (while that may refer to persons; many writers
prefer to use who and whom).
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun has the following functions in its own clause:

1. In the nominative case:
(1)as subject of the clause in which it stands
Examples:
The Panel interviewed all the students who applied for enrollment in the UE
College of Law.
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Examples:
The elephants that appear on the circus ramp are unusually well-trained.
The Green Foundation will help whoever needs help.
Our felicitations go to Abdul and Romy who, we are certain, have the
interests of the club at heart.
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
In the objective case:

(1) as object of a verb
Examples:
We awarded the highest bidder to Sharp Company, which we have dealt
with many times in the past.
Dr. Talens is the surgeon whom we highly recommend.
I know whomever we vote for will be hated by some.
b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
(2) as object of a preposition

Examples:
All the employees with whom he worked with were not
experienced.
Lawrence nominated Pastor Mike Velarde, for whom

we all have a high regard.

b. pronouns
Relative Pronouns
(3) as subject of an infinitive
Examples:
We do not know whom to invite as next week’s guest
speaker.
Marcelle asked her to play the organ.

b. pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns (who, which, what) are used in asking questions.

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent in the sentence; the
which it refers appears only in the answer.
Examples:
What cause the bombing?
Whose is this pair of eye glasses?
Who sent the original copies of these demand letters?
b. pronouns
Notice that in questions, particularly those in which the pronoun comes first and is
from the preposition that governs it, who is acceptable usage.
Examples:
Who was the Hall named for? But: For whom was it named?
Who are you going with? But: With whom are you going?
b. pronouns
Note: the possessive whose does not have an apostrophe. It should be

nguished from the contraction who’s (who is).
1. The interrogative which, whose, and what often modify nouns and are
interrogative adjectives.

Examples:
Which magazine is due?
Whose packages are ready to be mailed?
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns, such as all, any, both, each, either, everybody, none,
one, several, some, someone, do not refer to specific persons or things. It
should be noted, also, that many of these words may be either pronouns or
adjectives, depending upon their use in the sentence.
Examples:
Both of us have been assigned the graveyard shift. (pronoun)
Both secretaries were unattentive. (adjective)
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns frequently present problems in number and gender.
The following are suggestions for the use of these words:
1. When the indefinite pronoun is the subject of a sentence, it regularly takes a singular
verb and the pronoun referring to it agrees with it in number and gender. When gender
maybe considered as either masculine or feminine, the masculine pronoun often is
preferred, but some writers use both.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Examples:
Each of you must plan for herself.
Neither of the proponents has expressed his legal opinion in the matter.
Every student raised his or her hand.
Has any of the lawyers refused to sign his name to the petition?
Everybody has stated his views on this subject.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Note: everyone and everybody are not always referred to by a singular pronoun.
The number of the pronoun following depends upon the meaning of the sentence.
Modern usage accepts these words as having plural significance, and they are referred
to by a plural noun.
Examples:
Everybody comes, but they seldom stay through the meeting.
Everybody has considered the regulations, but their opinions differ.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
2. Since the words both, few, many, several are plural in meaning, they take plural
verbs and are referred to by a plural pronouns.

Examples:
Both of the lawyers sent in their reports.
Few cast their votes for Tomas.
Many of the delegates gave their credentials early.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
3. Also, some indefinite pronouns, such as all, most, and some, are singular or
plural depending on their meaning in a sentence.
Examples:
All (everything) has been prepared for the reception.
All (the boats) have hoisted their sails.
The modern tendency is to consider none as plural except when it is
equivalent to no one or not one. If the meaning is unmistakably singular,
use no one or not one.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Examples:
None have succeeded in their efforts to change the club’s by-laws.
Not one of the partners has registered a complaint.
4. When else is added to a compound indefinite, the possessive is formed by adding an

apostrophe and s (s’) to the world else.
Examples:
Nobody else’s decisions are more respected than yours.
Somebody else’s plan may prove better than Josie’s.
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
5. If compound indefinites are formed by adding body or thing to indefinite pronouns, the
words thus formed are written solid: everybody, something. When such compounds are
formed by adding one, they are written solid unless the reference is to each of several
persons: anyone, everyone, someone.
Examples:
Everyone listened attentively to the Senate President.
Everybody arrived on time.
Can someone type this memorandum accurately?
b. pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Write the compounds as two words if a prepositional phrase follows:
Examples:
Every one of the class attended the general assembly.
Any one of the officers is willing to serve as chairman of the committee.
c. case
Case is one of the forms a noun or pronoun takes to indicate its
relationship to other words in the sentence.
Kinds of cases:
1. nominative (subjective) – when it indicates the person or thing

acting.
Example:
She and I [not me] volunteered to donate blood.
c. case
2. genitive (possessive) – when it donates the person or thing owning or possessing.
Example:
The judge praised Bimbo for his thorough cross-examination.
3. objective (accusative) – when it indicates the person or thing acted upon.

Example:
Whom did the police blame for the shooting incident?
The complaint accused me of sexual harassment.
d. verbs
A verb is a word that tells what the subject (noun, pronoun, or clause) does or
what is done to it. The verb expresses action, mode of being, occurrence, or
condition, and should agree with its subject in person and number.
Remember one simple rule: plural subjects take plural verbs, singular subjects
take plural verbs.
Sometimes, grammatical errors in the use of verbs is excusable. (See
Coleongco v. Regalado & Montilla, G.R. No. L-4529, December 29, 1952)
d. verbs
Recognition of the Subject
1. Compound subjects.
(1) A subject consisting of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and
takes a plural predicate unless the nouns refer to the same person, or express a
single idea.
Examples:
Our merchandise and equipment are covered by insurance.
Weather and unemployment are cited as causes of the decline in
business.
d. verbs
Examples:
He and I are members of the Faculty Committee.
The sum and substance of the matter is that our firm remain in a prosperous
condition. (single idea)
My friend and adviser suggests I take a law degree. (one person)
d. verbs
(2) Singular subjects connected by or or nor take a singular verb.
Examples:
Either the secretary or the treasurer is always present at every
meeting.
Neither Pedro nor Mario fears the court’s decision.
d. verbs
(3) when two subjects differing in number are connected by either-or or

neither-nor and one of the subjects is plural, it should be placed second and the
verb should agree with it in number.
Correct: Neither the candidate nor the voters are satisfied

with the proposal.
Incorrect: Neither the voters nor the candidate is satisfied with
the proposal.
d. verbs
2. A verb should agree with its subject, not with a noun placed between the verb
and its subject.
Examples:
This list of addresses was prepared by Jean.
The latest news about those accidents has just been received.
The report about conditions in the Bilibid Prisons was published
last week.
d. verbs
3. Phrases or clauses introduced by such expressions as together with, as well as, in addition
to are not part of the subject and, therefore, do not affect the number of the verb.
Examples:
The church, as well as the nearby stores, was destroyed by fire.
The problem of building more schools, in addition to paying teacher’s salaries for
them, was discussed by the board.
All indications, as far as we can see, point to be better court management.
d. verbs
4. If the verb precedes the subject, care should be taken to have it agree with its
subject number.
Examples:
In this catalog ate the requirements for admission, the courses,
and the fees.
Leonardo stated that there were reports on the proposed
ordinance to be considered at the April meeting.
d. verbs
5. The form of plural nouns, especially those ending in a, which require a plural verb, should
not be mistaken for the singular form: bacteria, criteria, phenomena.
6. With the fractions, the verb agrees with the noun in the prepositional phrase.
Examples:
One third of the tax goes to the municipality.
One third of the taxes go to the municipality.
d. verbs
7. When nouns of quantity, distance, time, and amount are thought of as a unit, the
verb should be singular.
Examples:
Forty kilo is enough for the present.
Twenty pesos is still due on Fred’s account.
Four years is usually required for an A.B. political Science degree.
Two hundred kilometers remains to be driven in the afternoon.
d. verbs
8. Subjects modified by each and every are singular and therefore require a singular
verb.
Examples:
Each boy gets a guava.
Every street in the municipality is well lighted.
9. Collective nouns as subject.
A collective noun is a noun that names a group of persons, animals, or
things like committee, herd, furniture.
d. verbs
Such nouns may be regarded as singular or plural. Singular, if the word

denotes a group acting as an individual; Plural, if the word denotes the
individuals that make up the group.
Examples:
The Ad Hoc Committee has (not have) agreed upon the decision
not to dismiss the employee.
The Ad Hoc Committee have (not has) disagreed as their
judgment.
d. verbs
The community Service Committee were (not was) divided on their (not
its) understanding of the question.
When your committee has (not have) completed its (not their) work it (not
they) should prepare a written report.
d. verbs
(1) Since the names of associations, boards, companies, corporations, and the
like are collective nouns, they should be regarded as singular if the name denotes a
group acting as an individual or an entity and plural if the name denotes the
individuals composing the group. Care must be taken to have the pronouns and the
verbs agree with the collective nouns.
d. verbs
Examples:
The UE Association of University women has urged its
members to contribute to the Scholarship Fund.
The Proctor and Gamble company has scheduled the l argest

promotional program it has ever placed behind any of its more than
1,000 products.
d. verbs
(2)The article “a” usually precedes a collective noun regarded as plural; the
article the usually precedes a collective noun regarded as singular.
Examples:
A number of law students have signified their intention to take the tutorial
course on Remedial Law.
The number of students in Public Corporations has increased this year.

d. verbs
Examples:
A majority of voters are opposed to the amendment.
The majority in an assembly has the right to decide what the action
shall be.
A couple of suggestions were offered by the group.
The couple was recognized boarding a train.

d. verbs
(3) The voice of a verb shows whether the subject of the verb has performed
the action (active voice) or has received the action (passive voice).
Active voice: Bobby has cleaned his gun.

Passive voice: The gun is cleaned every month by Bobby.
d. verbs
In legal writing, prefer active voice. Reason: The active voice takes fewer
words. On the other hand, the passive voice can be ambiguous. With the active
voice, you can usually tell who is doing what to whom. With the passive voice,
the writer can hide the identity of the actor.
The verb in the passive voice consists of a form of to be combined with

the past participle of the main verb.
d. verbs
Examples:
I was eating when I was called to the telephone by the
police.
The need for better housing was discussed at the workshop.
Everything you could wish for was given to you as a child.
This book will be used in legal interviewing classes.

d. verbs
Verbs That Are Often Confused
There are some verbs that are often confused. Carefully note the use of the following:
1. Shall and May
Distinguish between:
(a)May I shut the window? and
(b)Shall I shut down the window?

“May I shut the window?” means that I wish the window closed and I ask
your permission to shut it. “Shall I shut the window?” means that I want to
know whether you wish the window closed.

d. verbs

2. Say and Tell

2.1 “To say” is used (1) when referring to a person’s actual words, and (2)
indirect speech if the sentence does not contain an indirect object.
Example:
Wrong: The judge told, “I shall go to prison,” if I tell a lie.
Right: The judge said, ”I shall go to prison,” if I tell a lie.

d. verbs

2.2 “To tell” is used in indirect speech when the sentence contains an indirect
object.

Example:
Wrong: She said to me that she is going to attend
the bar operations.
Right: She told me that she is going to attend the

bar operations.
d. verbs

3. Make and Do

3.1 “To make” primarily means to construct or manufacture something

Example:
Wrong: The junior lawyer did an extensive research
on res judicata.
Right: The junior lawyer made an extensive
research on res judicata.

d. verbs
3.2 “To do” means to accomplish something.
Example:
Wrong: You must make your research carefully.
Right: You must do your research carefully.
d. verbs
4. Lie and Lay

4.1 “Lie” (to rest) is an intransitive verb and never has an object.
Example:
Wrong: She is going to lay down for a couple of hours.
Right: She is going to lie down for a couple of hours.
4.2 “Lay” (to put) is a transitive verb and always requires an object.

Example:
Wrong: Please lie this document on the table.
Right: Please lay this document on the table.
d. verbs
On the other hand, “lay”, “laid”, and “laid” means also to produce
eggs. Example: The hen laid an egg after three months. It can also be used
as an idiom like “Lay the table”, which means to prepare the table for a
meal.
5. Sit and Seat

5. 1. “Sit” is best only as an intransitive verb.

Example:
Wrong: Mario seat at the desk to write his pleadings.
Right: Mario sit at the desk to write his pleadings.
d. verbs
“Sit” must not be confused with “set.” “Set” as a transitive verb means to
make a thing sit. Example: Set the forks on the table. “Set” is an intransitive verb,
means to go down. Example: The moon has set.

5.2 Seat” is a transitive verb and requires an object.

Example:
Wrong: He sat the bar examinees one by one.
Right: He seated the bar examinees one by one.

Very often the object of “seat” is a reflexive pronoun. Example: The
policeman seated himself near the exit door.
d. verbs
6. Rise and Raise

6.1 Rise is an intransitive verb and means to go up, stand up or get out of bed;
it does not require an object.

Example:
Wrong: Lanie raises very early in the morning.
Right: Lanie rises very early in the morning.
d. verbs
6.2 Raise is a transitive verb and means to go up, stand up or get out of bed;
does not require an object.

Example:
Wrong: The delegates rise their hands to vote.
Right: The delegates raise their hands to vote.

d. verbs
7. Like and Love

Either verb may be used for persons or things. The only difference
between tem is one of degree: “to love” is very much stronger than “to like.”
7.1 Like
Example:
Wrong: Everybody loves kind judges.
Right: Everybody likes kind judges.

d. verbs
7.2 Love
Example:
Wrong: Grandparents like their grandchildren.
Right: Grandparents love their grandchildren.

8. Stay and Remain
8.1 “To stay” means to live a short time as a guest or a visitor.
Example:
Wrong: We remained in a very decent guest house.
Right: We stayed in a very decent guest house.
d. verbs
8.2 “To remain” means to be left after duty has been performed well.
Example:
Wrong: Few good policemen have stayed in the service.
Right: Few good policemen have remained in the service.

9. Hanged and Hung
9.1 We use the form “hanged” when the reference is to kill a person by hanging.

Example:
Wrong: The robber was caught and hung by the angry crowd.
Right: The robber was caught and hanged by the angry crowd.
d. verbs
9.2 In all other cases, the form is “hung.”

Example:
Wrong: I hanged the picture of the new President of the Republic on
the wall.
Right: I hung the picture of the new President of theRepublic on t he
wall.

10. Wear and Put on
10.1 “Wear” means to have upon the body as a garment or as an ornament.
Example:
Wrong: The judge always puts on black robes.
Right: The judge always wears black robes.
d. verbs
10.2 “Put on” denotes a simple act.
Example:
Wrong: I wear my barong Tagalog every other day.
Right: I put on my barong Tagalog every other day.
11. Tear and Tear up

11.1“To tear” means to divide along a straight or irregular line sometimes by accident.
Example:
Wrong: Philip tore up his long sleeves on a sharp object.
Right: Philip tore his long sleeves on a sharp object.
d. verbs
11.2 “Tear up” means to destroy by tearing to pieces.

Example:
Wrong: His wife was so angry when she discovered the love
letter of his son to his girlfriend and tore the letter.
Right: His wife was so angry when she discovered the love
letter of his son to his girlfriend and tore up the letter.
d. verbs
12. Deal with and Deal in
12.1 “To deal with” means to have to do with. It also means to do business with and to
arrange a matter.
Example:
Wrong: This chapter deals common carriers.
Right: This chapter deals with common carries.
12.2 “To deal in” simply means to buy and sell.
Example:
Wrong: A real estate broker deals with real estate properties.
Right: A real estate broker deals in real estate properties.
d. verbs
13. Interfere with and interfere in
13.1 “To interfere with” means to be an obstacle to.
Example:
Wrong: The jarring noise of the jackhammer interferes
in my work.
Right: The jarring noise of the jackhammer interferes with
my work.
13.2 “To interfere in” means to take part in other people’s affairs without any right.
Example:
Wrong: I never interfere with my clients affair.
Right: I never interfere in my clients affair.
d. verbs
14. Steal and Rob
14.1 The object of “steal” is the thing taken by the thief such as money, watch, etc.
Example:
Wrong: The Sputnik gang has robbed all his money and jewelries.
Right: The Sputnik gang has stolen all his money and jewelries.

14.2 The object of “rob” is the person or place from whom (or which) the thing is taken,
such as a man, a house, etc.
Example:
Wrong: The Abu Sayyaf stole a bank yesterday.
Right: The Abu Sayyaf robbed a bank yesterday.
d. verbs
15. Revenge and Avenge
15.1 “To revenge” is to punish for a wrong done to oneself.
Example:
Wrong: Sonny avenged himself for the insult.
Right: Sonny revenged himself for the insult.

15.2 “To avenge” is to punish on behalf of another, usually the innocent and the week.
Example:
Wrong: Adrian revenged his brother’s murder.
Right: Adrian avenged his brother’s murder.
d. verbs
16. Convince and Persuade

16.1 “To convince” is to make a person believe.

Example:
Wrong: The investigating committee is fully persuaded of his
credibility.
Right: The investigating committee is fully convinced of his

credibility.

d. verbs
16.2 To persuade” means to get a person to do something.

Example:
Wrong: The Senate Blue Ribbon Committee could not convince
Ador to testify.
Right: The Senate Blue Ribbon Committee could not persuade Ador
to testify.
d. verbs
17. Refuse and Deny
17. 1 “To refuse” means not to take what is offered or not to do what one is asked to do.
Example:
Wrong: The traffic policeman denied to take the money.
Right: The traffic policeman refused to take the money.

17.2 “To deny” means to answer in the negative or to say that a statement is not true.
Example:
Wrong: Loren refused that she had made such a comment.
Right: Loren denied that she had made such a comment.
d. verbs
18. Take place and take part.
18.1 “To take place” means to happen or to be held.
Example:
Wrong: The club meeting will take part tomorrow.
Right: The club meeting will take place tomorrow.
18.2 “To take part” means to have a share in a thing.

Example:
Wrong: Daphne shall take place in the program.
Right: Daphne shall take part in the program.
d. verbs
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
1. Transitive verbs show action, either upon someone or something. The word
transitive comes from two Latin words which mean “passing across.” When the
verb is transitive, the action passes across from a doer (the subject) to a receiver
of the action (the direct object). A verb in the active voice shows that an action
has passed over the receiver or object.

Examples:
The UST Museum sells reproductions of its treasures.
Who knows what next year will bring?
We each do our own laundry.
d. verbs
2. When action is passed back to the subject, the verb is passive.

Examples:
Reproductions are sold at the UST Museum.
Personal laundry is done by each boarder.
An action has been brought against the owner of the motorcycle.
d. verbs
3. In another situation, the subject receives the results of the action, again in the
passive voice.

Examples:
The baby was given a toy by his proud father.
Gloria Arroyo was sworn as a President after Joseph Estrada took a leave
of absence.
Our guests are offered complimentary drinks on their arrival.

d. verbs
4. Some verbs of action have no receiver and are intransitive.

Examples:
My nephew plays in the backyard.
The wind whistled among the bare branches of the trees.
Tomorrow we can sleep like a dog.

d. verbs
5. When action is indicated, the same verb becomes transitive.

Examples:
My nephew plays football at the UP grounds.
Ponying whistles a tune while he cooks breakfast.
Tonight you can sleep the sleep of the just.

6. Included with intransitive verbs are the linking verbs: appear, be, become, feel, grow,
keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, and taste. These verbs link the subject to a noun
or pronoun (called the predicate nominative) or to an adjective (the predicate adjective).
d. verbs
The predicate nominative provides another name for the subject:
Examples:
Henry became a grandfather this year.
The general was emperor for life.
The predicate adjective describes the subject
Examples:
All your plants look healthy.
This room smells filthy.
This entire dinner was perfectly delicious.
d. tense
Tense is a distinctive form of a verb that expresses the time of action.
Tense is indicated by inflection, that is, a change in the form of the verb itself
(i.e., sing, sang, look, looked) or by the use of auxiliary verb form (will sing;
have looked). The wrong use of tenses is very common among law students.
Most of the troubles occur because of confusion in the use of the principal
parts of the sentence.
Every verb has three basic forms which are called the principal parts of the
verb. The present tense, the past tense and the past participle.

d. tense
1. Present:
a. The present tense indicates that an action is going on at the present time.
Examples:
This sale offers unusually low prices on all furniture.
I am glad to accept your invitation.

b. The present tense is used to express a present fact or an unchangeable truth.
Examples:
The Carballo Mountains are the longest and highest mountain system in the
North.
The teacher explained that water is composed of two gases.

d. tense
c. The present tense is often used instead of the future tense, although the latter would be
more precise. This usage is considered by some authorities to be colloquial for speaking or
informal writing.

Examples:
College opens next month.
We leave for Zamboanga City in June.

d. The present tense is sometimes used to make a past event or a past statement
more graphic; this usage is called the historical present.
Examples:
Rizal is at his best in depicting the abuse of the Spaniards in his Noli Me
Tangere.
d. tense
Examples:
Emerson says, “To be great is to be misunderstood.”
The Constitution states that all men are guaranteed due process of law.

e. The present tense should not be used to express an action begun in the past and still
continuing the correct tense in the present perfect.

Examples:
I have lived (not am living) in Manila for ten years.
U have known (not know) this woman all my life.
d. tense
2. Past:
a. On the other hand, the past tense indicates an action that occurred in past time.
Examples:
I answered Enrile’s letter yesterday.
The commission filed its report several days ago.
b. The present perfect tense denotes an action that has been completed at some
indefinite time before the present time.
Examples:
The mayor has spent many hours on the pending ordinance.
We have given the merger careful and serious consideration.
d. tense
c. The past perfect tense denotes that the action of the verb was completed at some
definite point in past time.

Examples:
Before I worked for Almeda & Associates Law Office, I had never seen a
2001 model desktop computer.
If he had remained with us, he would have been promoted.
A tense can be used to interpret the meaning of a law. (Abbot Laboratories v.

Agrava, G.R. No. L-4234, May 21, 1952)
d. tense
3. Tense of the Infinitive
a. The infinitive has two tenses, present and present perfect. Its use depends upon the
time expressed by the main verb.

(1) The present infinitive denotes the same time or future time in relation to the action
of the main verb. Notice that in the following sentences the present infinitive is used
with verbs denoting present or past time. The time denoted by the infinitive is the same
as that of the principal verb or later than denoted by the principal verb.
Examples:
I intend to go tomorrow.
I intended to go Thursday.
d. tense
Examples:
For several days I have been intending to write to you.
I should have liked to do it, but I could not (not to have done it).
Jose had intended to write the letter before breakfast (not to have written).

(2) Also, the perfect infinitive denotes action that is complete at the time of the
principal verb.

Examples:
The submarine was reported to have been sighted off Bermuda at noon.
d. tense
(3) Please note the difference in meaning implied by the present and perfect
infinitives in the following sentences:

Examples:
His men believed Aguinaldo to be a great general.
We believed Aguinaldo to have been a great general.
The Araneta Coliseum is said to be one of the largest in the world.
4. The Subjunctive Mood

1. The subjunctive mood is little used today but it is still used in legal writing –
d. tense
(1) To express a wish.
Example:
I wish I were in the Banaue rice terraces.

(2) To express a contrary-to-fact condition.
Example:
If I were you, I should accept the offer.

(3) Present and past conditions may be either (a) noncommittal or (b) contrary to fact.
a. A condition is noncommittal when it implies nothing as to the truth or falsity of the
case supposed.
d. tense
Example:
If Jojo is angry, I am sorry. (Perhaps Jojo is angry, perhaps not).

b. A condition is contrary to fact when it implies that the supposed cases is not or was
not true.
Example:
If Jojo were angry, I should be sorry. (Jojo is not angry.)

2. The principal parts of verbs consist of the present and the past indicative, and the past or
perfect participle.
The following table shows the principal parts of many troublesome verbs, most of
which are irregular.
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
d. tense
Guidelines of the use of tenses:
Since the wrong use of a tense is very common among law students, here are some
simplified examples and guidelines which you must remember.

1. Using the past tense after “did” instead of the infinitive without “to.”

1.1 To ask questions:
Wrong: Did you saw the accused?
Right: Did you see the accused.
d. tense
1.2 To make negations:
Wrong: I did not went the courtroom yesterday.
Right: I did not go the courtroom yesterday.

Note: The answer to a question beginning with “Did” is always in the past tense.
Example: Did you see the accused? “Yes, I saw the accused,” or “Yes I did.”
2. Using the third person singular after “does” instead of the infinitive without “to.”
d. tense
2. 1 To ask a questions:
Wrong: Does the prison guard does not sleeps while on duty?
Right: Does the prison guard sleep while on duty?

2.2 To make negations:
Wrong: The prison guard sleeps while on duty.
Right: The prison guard does not sleep while on duty.

Note: The answer to a question beginning with “Does” is always in the present tense,
third person. Example: Does he like the kundiman? “Yes, he likes the kundiman”
or Yes, he does.
d. tense
3. Using the third person singular after “can,” “must,” etc. instead of the infinitive without
“to.”
Wrong: He can recites the Constitution word for word.
Right: He can recite the Constitution word for word.

4. Wrong sequence of tenses. This is a common mistake among law students.
Wrong: He asked me what I am doing with a gun.
Right: He asked me what I was doing with a gun.
d. tense
For an easy guide, when the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense,
only a past tense can be used in subordinate clauses. This rule does not apply in the
following instances: (1) to verbs within quotations; (2) to facts that are true at all
times; and (3) to comparisons.
Examples:
1. The judge said: “I am waiting for your answer.”
2. He said that Basilan is a troublesome place.
3. She liked you more than she likes me.
d. tense
5. Using “shall” or “will” instead of “should” or “would” in a subordinate clause.
Wrong: He said that he will cross-examine tomorrow.
Right: He said that he would cross-examine tomorrow.

Notice that “shall” and “will” change to “should” and “would” in subordinate
clauses, when the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense.
d. tense
6. Using “may” instead of “might” in a subordinate clause.
Wrong: He told me that he may post bail today.
Right: He told me that he might post bail today.

Likewise, “many” changes to “might” in subordinate clauses when the verb in the
principal clauses is in the past tense. The conjunction “that” is NEVER preceded
by a comma.

7. Using “can” instead of “could” in a subordinate clause.
Wrong: He taught he can win the case.
Right: He thought he could win the case.

d. tense
8. Using the past tense after the sign of the infinitive “to.”
Wrong: He tried to slapped the accused.
Right: He tried to slap the accused.

9. Using the past tense after an auxiliary verb, instead of the past participle.
Wrong: I have forgot to bring my diary.
Right: I have forgotten to bring my diary.

10. Using “must” or “ought” to express a past obligation.
Wrong: You ought to come yesterday to get the criminal law book.
Right: You ought to have come yesterday to get the criminal law book.
d. tense
You should have come yesterday to get the criminal law book.

Remember that “must” and “ought” cannot be used as past tenses. However, in
indirect speech, “must” and “ought” may be used as past tenses. Example: “He
said he must do it, or we will be meted a penalty.”

11. Using the present perfect instead of the past tense.
Wrong: I have seen a good litigation yesterday in the Regional Trial Court of Manila.
Right: I saw a good litigation yesterday in the Regional Trial Court of Manila.

d. tense
When your sentence has a word or a phrase denoting past time, like “yesterday,” “last
night,” “last year,” or “ago” be sure always to use the past tense.

12. Using the past tense instead of the present perfect.
Wrong: I saw the Chocolate Hills of Carmen, Bohol.
Right: I have seen the Chocolate Hills of Carmen, Bohol.

13. Using the simple present instead of the present perfect.
Wrong: I am in law practice for twenty years.
Right: I have been in law practice for twenty years.
d. tense
The present perfect and not the simple present must be used for an action
begun in the past and continuing into the present. I have been means I am still
here.

14. Using the verb “to use” for a present habitual action.
Wrong: I use to rise at six every morning to make my pleadings.
Right: I am accustomed to rising at six to make my pleadings.

However, in the past tense, the verb “to use” expresses a past habitual action,
and it usually refers to some remote habit or one no longer followed. Example: My
father used to attend hearings in court everyday.
d. tense
15. Using the past tense instead of the past perfect.
Wrong: The judge left before I arrived.
Right: The judge had left before I arrived.

16. Using the past perfect instead of the past tense.
Wrong: I had finished the legal research last week.
Right: I finished the legal research last week.

17. Using the future tense in a clause of time, instead of the present tense.
Wrong: I shall meet you when I shall come back from Olongapo.
Right: I shall meet you when I come back from Olongapo.
d. tense
18. Using the future tense in the “if” clause instead of the present tense.
Wrong: If the sheriff will ask me, I shall stay.
Right: If the sheriff asks me, I shall stay.

Remember that in a simple future condition, the present tense is used in the
condition (or “if” clause) and the future tense in the answer to the condition. But
the future tense may be used in an “if” clause expressing a request. Example:
“Fiscal, I shall be very grateful f you will make me win this case.”
d. tense
19. Using the present tense after “as if” or “as though” instead of the past.
Wrong: Atty. Cruz talks as if he knows everything about securities.
Right: Atty. Cruz talks as if he knew everything about securities.

The phrase “as if” or “as though” should be followed by the past tense. In the
above example, “Atty. Cruz talks as if he knew everything on securities” means
“He talks as he would talk if he knew everything on securities.”
d. tense
20. Mixing up the tenses. This is also a common mistake of many law students.
Wrong: The club asked her to be the President, but she refuses.
Right: The club asked her to be the President, but she refused.

If you begin with a verb referring to past time, keep the same form all
throughout.
f. Adjectives and adverbs
An adjective is a word used to modify (limit, identity, or describe) a noun or in some
other way, to make meaning more extract.
An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb by describing or limiting to make meaning more exact.
Guidelines for the use of Adjectives and Adverbs

1. An adjective is used when the condition of the subject is descried.

Examples:
The discussion on res judicata was brief.
A reasonable decision should be expected soon.
2. On the other hand, an adverb is used when the action of the verb is explained.
Examples:
He always speaks clearly over the cellphone.
The mayor answered the complaint quietly and reasonably.

Note however that there are adverbs which are often confused.

2.1 Very and Too
2.1.1. “Very” is simply makes the adjective or adverb stronger.

Example:
Wrong: It is too hot in the courtroom when there are many litgants.
Right: It is very hot in the courtroom when there are many litgants.

2.1.2. “Too” means more than enough or so much that something else happens as a
result.

Example:
Wrong: It is now very hot to proceed to the meeting room.
Right: It is now too hot to proceed to the meeting room.
2.2 Very and Much
2.2.1. “Very” is used with adjectives and adverbs in the positive degree and with
present participles used as adjectives.
Example:
Wrong: He is a much popular professor of law.
Right: He is a very popular professor of law.

2.2.2. Much” is used with adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, and
with past participles.
Example:
Wrong: He is very weaker than I am.
Right: He is much weaker than I am.
2.3 Too much for very much
2.3.1 “Very much” is used instead of “much” for greater emphasis.
Example:
Wrong: She likes Remedial Law too much.
Right: She likes Remedial Law very much.

2.3.2 “Too much” denotes an excessive quantity or degree.
Example:
Wrong: He ate very much pizza.
Right: He ate too much pizza.
2.4 Hardly for Hard
2.4.1 “Hard” means severly.
Example:
Wrong: The sheriff said that he was hit hardly.
Right: The sheriff said that he was hit hard.

2.4.2 “Hardly” means not quite or scarcely.
Example:
Wrong: The polio stricken witness can hard walk.
Right: The polio stricken witness can hardly walk.

2.5 By and by and gradually
2.5.1 “By and By” means soon or after a little while.
2.5.2 “Gradually” means slowly or little by little.

Example:
Wrong: The newly born cow is learning to walk by and by.
Right: The newly born cow is gradually to walk by and by.
2.6 Presently for At present

These words are not synonymous. “At present” means now. “Presently” means
“soon.”
Example:
Wrong: My mother, Margarita, is presently in Hawaii.
Right: My mother, Margarita, is at present in Hawaii.

2.7 Scarcely for Rarely
Also, scarcely is not synonymous with rarely. “Rarely” means not often.
“Scarcely” means not quite.

Example:
Wrong: Ever since he paid his debt, he scarcely comes to visit me.
Right: Ever since he paid his debt, he rarely comes to visit me.
3. Some words have the same form whether they are used as adjectives or adverbs like far,
fast, first.

Examples:
The little motel was a far cry from our usual accommodations.
Mike ran far ahead of the other contestants.
Jaime likes to drive fast he made many mistakes.
Flor typed so fast he made many mistakes.
The first candidate spoke at length.
First, watch your grammar.
4. Some words have two adverbial forms: cheap, cheaply; direct, directly; loud, loudly; quick,
quickly; slow, slowly; sure, surely; wide, widely. The choice is a matter of usage with ly forms
ordinarily considered more formal, the shorter forms more emphatic. The adjective is used
whenever some form of the verb to be or to seem may be substituted. But when no such
substitution can be made, the adverb is generally preferred.
Examples:
Buy cheap and sell dear.
The bullets were cheaply made.
Mail the order direct to me.
The stenographer went directly home.
Do not speak so loud.
Pablo drove so slowly that he was late.
5. The modifier should be an adjective if it denotes the condition of the subject, but an
adverb if it explains the action of the verb.

Examples:
We stand firm in our opinion.
We stand firmly by our decision.
They stood silent as the funeral cortege passed.
They listened silently to the judge.
The house had been completely restored.
The client remained quiet.
He walked quietly around the courtroom.

6. Verbs of the senses, such as fell, look, smell, sound, and taste, as well as copulative verbs,
such as appear, be, become, seem, take an adjective to denote the quality or the condition of
the subject.

Examples:
Everybody feels happy about Mario’s appointment.
Marie always looks cheerful.
The flowers smell sweet.
All the food tasted delicious.
The new legal secretary appears jolly.
Gringo felt bad (or felt badly) about the delay in the delivery of the goods.

Bad and badly are found with almost equal acceptance in standard English when
following feel, although bad is usually preferred in formal writing . . . . When preceded
by look, sound, smell, etc., the usual choice is bad.

7. Possessive Adjectives
The forms my, our, your, and there are possessive adjectives, as are also his, her, and
its, when used to modify.

Examples:
His leaving the law office came as a surprise to us.
We could not think of his refusing our offer.
Is there any possibility of their buying a house in Olongapo City?
8. The comparative degree is used in comparing two persons or things. The superlative
degree is used in comparing more than two persons or things.

Examples:
Our expenses are greater than yours.
The route is more direct than the one through Sarrat town.
Central Bookstore’s material s less expressive than yours.
You are the best debater in the team.

9. Adjectives of one syllable and some adjectives of two syllables from the comparative by
adding er, and the superlative by adding est, to the positive.

Examples:
fine finer finest
friendly friendlier friendliest

Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of more than two syllables
form their comparative by prefixing more or less, and their superlative by prefixing
most or least.

Examples:
The recent news of the expedition seemed more hopeful.
Manny is the least competent salesman in the department.

10. Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. If you are in doubt
about the forms, consult a dictionary.

Examples:
bad, ill worse worst
far farther farthest
(distance) further furthest
(in the sense of additional, and also distance)

good, well better best
little less, lesser least
littler littlest
much, many more most
Strictly, some adjectives and the adverbs derived from them are incapable of
comparison because they express a quality complete or perfect; as, universal, unique,
perfect, infinite, preferable. But modern usage accepts many deviations from this rule; a
most complete, report, a more perfect example.
Such words, however, may be modified in meaning by such adverbs as almost,

hardly, nearly, to suggest approach to the superlative.

11. Still, there are adjectives which are often confused. Here are some of them.
11. 1. Many and Much

(a) “Many” is used with plural nouns as “many books” etc.
Wrong: This law library hasn’t much books.
Right: This law library hasn’t many books

(b) “Much” is used with singular nouns that have no plural.
Wrong: Is there many ashes in Mt. Pinatubo?
Right: Is there much ashes in Mt. Pinatubo?
11.2. Few and A Few
(a) “Few” means not many and emphasizes the smallness of the number.
Wrong: Although the bar question was easy, a few students were able to answer
it.
Right: Although the bar question was easy, few students were able to answer
it.

(b) “A few” means at least some.
Wrong: Although the bar question was difficult, few students were able to answer
it.
Right: Although the bar question was difficult, a few students were able to
answer it.
11.3 Little and A little
(a) Little means not much and emphasizes the smallness of the amount.
Wrong: Joy slept a little before the bar examinations and felt no better.
Right: Joy slept little before the bar examinations and felt no better.

(b) “A little” means at least some.
Wrong: Joy slept little before the bar examinations and felt lousy.
Right: Joy slept a little before the bar examinations and felt lousy.
11. 4 Each and Every
(a) “Each” is used for one of two or more things, taken one by one. “Each” is therefore
more individual and specific.
Wrong: Every one of the two witnesses was wrong.

Right: Each one of the two witnesses was wrong.

(b) “Every” is never used for two, but always for more than two things, taken as a
group. “Every” is a more emphatic word.

Wrong: Japar read each book of the library.
Right: Japar read every book of the library.
11.5 His and Her
In English, possessive adjectives (and pronouns) agree with the person who
possesses, and not with the person or thing possessed. When the possessor is
masculine, use “his,” and when the possessor is feminine, use “her.”

(a) His
Wrong: Antonio visits her sister every Sunday in Manila City Jail.
Right: Antonio visits his sister every Sunday in Manila City Jail.

(b) Her
Wrong: Sheryl visits his brother every Sunday in Batangas City.
Right: Sheryl visits her brother every Sunday in Batangas City.
11.6 Older (oldest) and Elder (eldest)
“Older” and “oldest” are applied to both persons and things; while “elder” and
“eldest” are applied to persons only, and most frequently to related persons.
(Warning: “Elder” cannot be followed by “than”: as, “Jane is older [not elder] than
her sister.”)

(a) “Older” and “Oldest” are applied to both persons and things.

Wrong: Bimbo is elder than Bingbong.
Bimbo is the eldest of all.
Right: Bimbo is elder than Bingbong.
Bimbo is the oldest of all.

(b) “Elder” and “Eldest” are applied to persons only and frequently to related persons.
Wrong: My older brother who is in Hawaii is called Rusty.
My oldest brother, Rusty is not here.
Say: My elder brother who is in Hawaii is called Rusty.
My eldest brother, Rusty is not here.

11.7 Interesting and Interested
(a) “Interesting” refers to the thing which arouses interest.
Wrong: I have read an interested story of former Solicitor General Sedfrey
Ordoňez.
Right: I have read an interesting story of former Solicitor General Sedfrey
Ordoňez.
(b) “Interested” refers to the person who takes an interest in the thing.
Wrong: Are you interesting in your law studies?
Right: Are you interested in your law studies?

11.8 Wounded and Injured or Hurt
People are injured or hurt as a result of an accident, and wounded in battle or in
war.
(a) “Wounded”
Wrong: Thousands were injured in the Mindanao war.
Right: Thousands were wounded in the Mindanao war.
(b) “Injured or Hurt”
Wrong: He was wounded in the failed rescue attempt by the Philippine
Army.
Right: He was injured in the failed rescue attempt by the Philippine
Army.

11.11 Some for Any
“Any” (not “some”) must be used in interrogative and negative sentences. “Some”
is generally used in affirmative sentences, or in interrogative sentences expecting an
affirmative answer. Example: “Will you bring me some water?”
Wrong: Have you some exhibits to mark?
Right: Have you any exhibits to mark?

11.12 Less for Fewer
“Less” denotes amount, quantity, value, or degree; “fewer” denotes number. Thus,
we may have “less water,” “less food,” “less money,” “less education”; but fewer
books,” “fewer letters,” “fewer friends.”
Wrong: They have less books than I have.
Right: They have fewer books than I have.

11.12 This for That
You cannot use “this” unless the object is being touched by you. “That” must be
used to the point out something distant, and the correct answer to “What is this?” is
always “That is a . . . .”
Wrong: Look at this bullet hole across the wall.
Right: Look at that bullet hole across the wall.
11.13 High for Tall
“Tall” is generally used on persons, and is the opposite of “short.” “High” is used on
trees, buildings, or mountains, and is the opposite of “low.”
Wrong: My younger brother is six feet high.
Right: My younger brother is six feet tall.

11.18 Sick for Ill
“To be ill” means to be in bad health. “To be sick” generally means to be inclined to
vomit or to be temporarily indisposed: as, “The smell made me sick.” However, “Sick”
can also be used before a noun or as a noun in the plural: as, “The sick is lying in bed”;
“We visit the sick.”
Wrong: My lawyer has been sick for over a month.
Right: My lawyer has been ill for over a month.

11.19 Angry for Sorry
“Sorry” is the opposite of “glad.” “Angry” means annoyed or enraged: as, “He was
angry when a boy hit him in the face.”

Wrong: I was angry to hear of the death of the hostages.
Right: I was sorry to hear of the death of the hostages.

12. Adjectives can be used as an aid to interpret a law. (See People v. Capacia, G.R. No.
1824, March 18, 1922; Board of Assessment Appeals v. Court of Tax Appeals, et al., G.R. No.
L-18125, May 31, 1963; SSS v. City of Bacolod, et al., G.R. No. L-35726, July 21, 1982)

13. Adjectives can also be used as an aid to interpret a contract. (Gurrea v. Lazama, et al.,
G.R. No. L-10556, April 30, 1958)

14. An adjective can also be used to interpret the testimony of a witness. (People v. Aguel,
G.R. N. L36654, May 19, 1980)
Proper Adjectives

A proper adjective is a descriptive adjective derived from a proper noun: Ilocos
industry, French literature.

(1) Capitalize proper adjectives unless they have lost their association with the nouns from
which they were derived: chili sauce, french fry, pasteurized milk, platonic love, korean
kimchi.
Agreement of adjective and Noun

This and that are singular and must be used to modify singular nouns. These and
those are plural and must be used to modify plural nouns.

Examples:
This kind (not these kind) of books is instructive and educational.
These kinds (not this kinds) of books are instructive and educational.
That sort (not those sort) of answer carries little weight.

Note: I feel kind of sorry for him is incorrect. Say rather sorry for clarity.
Note that kind of (not kind of a) and sort of (not sort of a) are permissible although
colloquial.
Placement of Adverbs
Please follow the following simple rules when it comes to adverbs:
1. Adverbs or adverbial phrases of definite time, like “yesterday,” “today,” “tomorrow,”
“last week,” “two months ago,” are usually placed at the end of the sentence.
Example:
Wrong: I, last night, had a date with my girlfriend.
Right: I had a date with my girlfriend last night.

2. But if we wish to emphasize the time, we place the adverb at the beginning.
Example:
Yesterday, the sentence was promulgated.
3. Adverbs of indefinite time like “ever,” “never,” “always,” “often,” “seldom,” “soon,”
“sometimes,” and the adverbs “almost,” “scarcely,” “hardly,” “nearly,” “even,” are placed
before the principal verb.
Example:
Wrong: The defendant come always late to the hearing.
Right: The defendant always comes late to the hearing.

4. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together in a sentence, the adverb of
place must come first.
Example:
Wrong: Our witnesses will tomorrow be here.
Right: Our witnesses will be here tomorrow.

5. With a transitive verb, the adverb generally comes after the object.
Example:
Wrong: He interviewed carefully his client.
Right: He interviewed his client carefully.
6. “Only” should be placed immediately before the word which it qualifies.

Example:
Wrong: I only saw him shoot the victim once.
Right: I saw him shoot the victim only once.

7. The adverb “enough” is placed after the word which is qualifies and not before it.
Examples:
Wrong: Is the function room enough large for everybody?
Right: Is the function room large enough for everybody?
But the adjective “enough” may come either before or after the noun.
Example: “We have enough food for ten people” or “We had food enough for
ten people.”

8. The position of “not” in a compound verb is after the first auxiliary.
Example:
Wrong: I should have not gone . . .
Right: I should not have gone . . .
9. The position of “not” in the negative infinitive is immediately before the word “to” and
not after it.
Example:
Wrong: I told her to not come on the Feast Day of San Roque.
Right: I told her not to come on the Feast Day of San Roque.

10. In question beginning with an interrogative word like what, when, where, why, and how,
the verb is placed before the subject as in all questions.
Example:
Wrong: Why you were absent last Saturday?
Right: Why were you absent last Saturday?
11. When “never,” “seldom,” “rarely,” “neither,” “nor,” “not only,” “no sooner,” are placed
at the beginning of a complete clause, the verb must come before the subject as in a
question.
Example:
Wrong: Never I have heard of such a preposterous story.
Right: Never have I heard of such a preposterous story.

12. In indirect questions, the usual order of words is followed: subject first then verb.
Example:
Wrong: He asked me what ballgames did I play.
Right: He asked me what ballgames I played.
13. The object of a transitive verb generally comes directly after the verb.
Example:
Wrong: He hit with his hand the man.
Right: He hit the man with his hand.

14. The adjective is generally put immediately before the noun it qualifies.
Example:
Wrong: My brother has a swimming pool that is very large.
Right: My brother has a very large swimming pool.
15. The relative clause must be put immediately after the noun to which it refers.

Example:
Wrong: A policeman has a firearm who is in my class.
Right: A policeman who is in my class has a firearm.
Unnecessary Adverbs

Unnecessary adverbs should be avoided.
Examples:
Each sheet of paper should be carefully numbered (not numbered throughout).
Repeat it (not repeat it again).
They returned (not returned back) to the hotel.
Let us cooperate (not cooperate together).
Finish the business (not finish up the business).
They expect to divide (not divide up) the proceeds.
g. article
Many law students also take the articles for granted. Here are some few reminders:

1. Use the indefinite article a before words in which the first sound is a consonant, a
sounded h, or a long u.

Examples:
a cabinet a hundred kilos
a helper a unanimous votes
a heroic rescue a united nation
a historical novel a union
a history a useful machine
a hotel

g. article
2. Always use an before words I which the first sound is a vowel, except long u, and before
words beginning with silent h.

Examples:
an envelope an hour
an owner an unnecessary word

3. Do not forget that the articles a, an, and the should be repeated in referring to two
separate persons or objects.

Examples:
The law office employs a typist and a stenographer. (two persons)
The law office employs a typist and a stenographer. (one persons)
g. article
Examples:
Either a man or a woman may apply.
For sale: a narra and a mahogany desk. (two desks)
For sale: a narra and mahogany desk. (one desks)

But when two or more nouns refer to the same persons, the article should not be
repeated.

Example:
Angel Sadang was a general, writer, and statesman.
Martin became well known as a poet and educator.

4. Be accurate with the use of unnecessary articles. Here are some examples:
g. article
4.1 Wrong use of “the” with proper nouns.
Wrong: The Carlos will go to the Pangasinan.
Right: Carlos will go to Pangasinan.

As a rule, the definite article is not used with proper nouns. However “the” is
generally placed before the names of (1) rivers, i.e., the Pasig River; (2) seas, i.e.,
the Celebes sea; (3) oceans, i.e., the Pacific ocean; (4) bays, i.e., the Laguna bay;
(5) mountain ranges, i.e., the Caraballo mountain range; (6) groups of islands, i.e.,
the Batanes group of islands.

4.2 Wrong use of “the” with abstract nouns.
Wrong: The honesty is a great virtue.
Right: Honesty is the great virtue.
g. article
4.3 Wrong use of “the” with material nouns.
Wrong: The titanium is a very precious and durable metal.
Right: Titanium is a very precious and durable metal.

4.4 Wrong use of “the” with plural nouns used in a general sense.
Wrong: The carabaos are patient animals.
Right: Carabaos are patient animals.

4.5 Wrong use of “the” with the names of the senses.
Wrong: The touch is one of the five senses.
Right: Touch is one of the five senses.

g. article
4.6 Wrong use of “the” with “prison.”
Wrong: The brother who is a jailguard goes to the prison everyday.
Right: My brother who is a jailguard goes to prison everyday.

‘To go to prison” means to discharge a duty or fulfill a sentence depending on
how the sentence is used, while “to go to the prison” means to visit the prison cell.

4.7 Wrong use of “the” with “church.”
Wrong: I go to the church every Sunday.
Right: I go to church every Sunday.
g. article
4.8 Wrong use of the indefinite article after “kind of” or “sort of.”

Wrong: What kind of a viand do you want.
Right: What kind of viand do you want.
h. prepositions
A preposition is a connecting word that shows the relation of a noun or a pronoun to
some other word in a sentence.

Example:
The main office is in Makati City.
The preposition “in” shows the relation of the noun Makati City to the verb is.
Please be careful in the use of prepositions. Sometimes, even the Supreme Court is
confused on the use of prepositions. Justice Isagani A. Cruz once reminisced :
h. prepositions
“While still on the Court, I did not hesitate to every now and then send my colleagues
some reminders of grammatical rules and usages that I thought would be useful to all of
us. I did not do this out of a sense of superiority but only because of a desire to be helpful
and also to improve the image of the tribunal. The members understood this and accepted
my suggestions in good grace. Sometimes we even discussed the rules spiritedly, as if
examining a legal question. x x x I was particularly concerned about the improper use of
some prepositions, as in “I request for a hearing,” a quite common lapse even now. x x x “I
request a hearing” is just fine. (Grammar reminders, Philippine Daily Inquirer, December
15, 1999)

h. prepositions
Common Mistakes on the use of a wrong preposition

Mistakes are often made by using a wrong preposition after certain words. The
following list includes the words which most often give trouble:

1. Absorbed (very much interested) in, not at.
Wrong: The lawyer was absorbed at his work.
Right: The lawyer was absorbed in his work.

2. Accused of, not for:
Wrong: She accused the man for sexual harassment.
Right: She accused the man of sexual harassment.
h. prepositions
3. Accustomed to, not with.
Wrong: I am accustomed with hard work.
Right: I am accustomed to hard work.

4. Afraid of, not from.
Wrong: The snatcher is afraid from the policeman.
Right: The snatcher is afraid of the policeman.

5. Aim at, not on or against.
Wrong: He aimed on (or against) the wild boar.
Right: He aimed at the wild boar.
h. prepositions
Note: The preposition at is often used to denote direction. For example: “throw at,”
“shout out.” But “shoot” (without the at) means to kill. Example: “He shot a
criminal.”

6. Angry with, not against.
Wrong: The judge was angry against the prisoner.
Right: The judge was angry with the prisoner.
Note: We get angry “with” a person but “at” a thing.

7. Anxious (troubled) about, not for.
Wrong: The mother is anxious for the homicide case of her son.
Right: The mother is anxious about the homicide case of her son.
h. prepositions
Note: But “anxious” meaning “wishing very much” takes “for.” Example: The
Secretary is anxious for the success of the project.

8. Arrive at, not to.
Wrong: We arrived to the municipality at night.
Right: We arrived at the municipality at night.

Note: “Arrive in” is used of countries and large cities.
Example: My aunt arrived in Canada on time.

h. prepositions
9. Ashamed of, not from.
Wrong: He is now ashamed from his conviction.
Right: He is now ashamed of his conviction.
Note: It is not proper to use “ashamed of” in the meaning of ”shy.” Thus, instead of “I
am ashamed of my professor,” you should say, “I am shy of my professor.”

10. Believe in, not to.
Wrong: Filipinos believe to Jesus Christ.
Right: Filipinos believe in Jesus Christ.
Note: “To believe in” means to have faith in; while “to believe” (without the in) means
to regard as true. Example: The city prosecutor quite believes what he says.
h. prepositions
11. Benefit by, not from.
Wrong: She has benefited from the change of government.
Right: She has benefited by the change of government.

Note: But a person gets or derives benefit from.
Example: She got (or derived) much benefit from the change of government.

12. Boast of or about, not for.
Wrong: He boasted for his high grades in criminal law.
Right: He boasted of (or about) his high grades in criminal law.

h. prepositions
13. Careful of, not for.
Wrong: He is very careful for his examination in labor law.
Right: He is very careful of his examination in labor law.

Note: Also, “take care of.” Example: “Please take care of your brother.”

14. Complain of, not for.
Wrong: Many people complain for the horrendous traffic.
Right: Many people complain of the horrendous traffic.
h. prepositions
15. Composed of, not from.
Wrong: The Legal Ethics class is composed from forty men.
Right: The Legal Ethics class is composed of forty men.

16. Confidence in, not to.
Wrong: I have great confidence to God.
Right: I have great confidence in God.

Note: Also “in confidence.” Example: Let me tell you something in confidence (as a
secret).
h. prepositions
17. Conform to, not with.
Wrong: We must conform with the Rules of Court.
Right: We must conform to the Rules of Court.

Note: But “comply” takes “with.” Example: We will comply with the court order.

18. Congratulate on, not for.
Wrong: I congratulate you for your success.
Right: I congratulate you on your success.

h. prepositions
19. Consist of, not from.
Wrong: A month consists from thirty days.
Right: A month consists of thirty days.

Note: Great care must be taken never to use “consist” in the passive voice.

20. Covered with, not by.
Wrong: The corpse was covered by newspaper.
Right: The corpse was covered with newspaper.

h. prepositions
21. Cure of, not from.
Wrong: The prosecutor was cured from his cancer.
Right: The prosecutor was cured of his cancer.

Note: But the noun “cure” takes “for.” Example: There is no cure for cancer.

22. Designed for, intended for or used for, not to. (Cf. U.S. v. Estapia, G.R. No. 12399,
October 19, 1917)
Wrong: This is designed to import products.
Right: This is designed for import products.

h. prepositions
23. Depend on or upon, not from.
Wrong: The answer depends from the situation.
Right: The answer depends on (or upon) the situation.

Note: In the same token, “rely on” or “upon” must be used. Example: I cannot rely
on (or upon) the stenographer.

24. Deprived of, not from.
Wrong: He was deprived from his freedom of the press.
Right: He was deprived of his freedom of the press.

h. prepositions
25. Die of an illness, not from an illness.
Wrong: Many lawyers have died from stress and fatigue.
Right: Many lawyers have died of stress and fatigue.

Note: Also use, Lawyers “die of illness,” “of hunger,” “of thirst,” “of” or “from”
wounds; “from overwork”; “by violence,” “by the sword,” “by pestilence”; “in
battle,” “in poverty,” “for their country,” “for cause”; “through neglect,” “on the
scaffold.”

26. Different from, not than.
Wrong: My firearm is different than yours.
Right: My firearm is different from yours.
h. prepositions
27. Disappointed in, not from.
Wrong: I was disappointed from her speech of the nation address.
Right: I was disappointed in her speech of the nation address.

28. Divide into parts, not in parts.
Wrong: I divided the attorney’s fees in three parts.
Right: I divided the attorney’s fees into three parts.

Note: But a thing may be divided “in half” or “in two.” Example: He divided the
guava in half (or in two).

h. prepositions
29. Doubt (n.) of or about, not for.
Wrong: The senior partner have no doubt for his ability.
Right: The senior partner have no doubt of (or about) his ability.

Note: Also “doubtful of.” Example: I am doubtful of his ability to pass the bar exams.

30. Dressed in, not with.
Wrong: The judge was dressed with a black robe.
Right: The judge was dressed in a black robe.

h. prepositions
31. Exception to, not with.
Wrong: This is an exception of the rule on admissibility of evidence.
Right: This is an exception to the rule on admissibility of evidence.
Note: But we say “with the exception of.” Example: He read all his books with the
exception of Statutory Construction.

32. Exchange for, not by.
Wrong: They exchanged gold by titanium.
Right: They exchanged gold for titanium.
Note: Also “in exchange for.” Example: He gave his antique car “in exchange for” a
brand new BMW motorcycle.
h. prepositions
33. Fail in, not from.

Wrong: He failed from Remedial Law last year.
Right: He failed in Remedial Law last year.

34. Full of, not with or from.
Wrong: The auditorium was full with (or from) law students.
Right: The auditorium was full of law students.

Note: But “fill” takes “with.” Example: He filled the glass with milk.
h. prepositions
35. Get rid of, not from.

Wrong: I shall be happy to get rid from the witness.
Right: I shall be happy to get rid of the witness.

36. Glad of or about, not from or with.
Wrong: I am glad from (or with) the good announcement.
Right: I am glad of (or about) the good announcement.

Note: But a person is “glad at” a result. Example: “He is glad at the affirmative
decision of the court.”
h. prepositions
37. Good at, not in.

Wrong: My junior partner is good in remedial law.
Right: My junior partner is good at remedial law.

Note: also, “bad at,” “clever at,” “quick at,” “slow at,” but “weak in.” Example: He
is “weak in” grammar. Likewise, He is “good in class” means that his conduct is
good.

38. Guard against, not from.
Wrong: You must guard from haphazard judgment.
Right: You must guard against haphazard judgment.
h. prepositions
39. Guilty of, not for.
Wrong: He was found guilty for child molestation.
Right: He was found guilty of child molestation.

40. Independent of, not from.
Wrong: He is independent from his brothers.
Right: He is independent of his brothers.
Note: But we say “dependent on.” Example: “A kitten is dependent on its mother.”

41. Indifferent to, not for.
Wrong: They are indifferent for politicians.
Right: They are indifferent to politicians.

h. prepositions
42. Insist on, not to.
Wrong: He always insisted to his ideas.
Right: He always insisted on his ideas.

43. Interested in, not for.
Wrong: She is not interested for her law studies.
Right: She is not interested in her law studies.

44. Leave for a place, not to a place.
Wrong: They are leaving to Bilibid Prisons soon.
Right: They are leaving for Bilibid Prisons soon.

h. prepositions
45. Look at, not to.
Wrong: Look to this nice frame.
Right: Look at this nice frame.

Note: Also, “gaze at,” “stare at,” but “look after,” (meaning to take care of), “look
for” (meaning try to find); “look over” (meaning examine), “look into” (meaning
examine closely), “look upon” (meaning consider), “look down upon” (meaning
have a low opinion of), “look up to” (meaning respect), “look out for” (meaning
expect), “look forward to” (meaning expect with pleasure), “look to” (meaning
be careful of or rely on).

h. prepositions
46. Married to, not with.
Wrong: She was married with an orphan.
Right: She was married to an orphan.

47. Opposite to, not from.
Wrong: Their farm house is opposite from ours.
Right: Their farm house is opposite to ours.

48. Pass by a place, not from a place.
Wrong: Will you pass from the law library?
Right: Will you pass by the law library?
h. prepositions
49. Play for a team, not with a team.
Wrong: He plays regularly with that law debating team.
Right: He plays regularly for that law debating team.

50. Popular with, not among.
Wrong: Dean Balbastro is popular among his friends.
Right: Dean Balbastro is popular with his friends.

51. Prefer to, not from.
Wrong: I prefer a black Parker pen from a blue one.
Right: I prefer a black Parker pen to a blue one.
h. prepositions
52. Preside at over, not for.
Wrong: Who presided in the last law faculty meeting?
Right: Who presided at (or over) the last law faculty meeting?

53. Proud of, not for.
Wrong: He is very proud for his accomplishment.
Right: He is very proud of his accomplishment.

Note: But we say, “take (a) pride in.” Example: A lawyer takes a pride in his
successful defense case.

h. prepositions
54. Rejoice at or in, not for.
Wrong: The club rejoiced for Mark’s passing the bar examinations.
Right: The club rejoiced at (or in) Mark’s passing the bar examinations.

55. Related to, not with.
Wrong: Are you related with him in any way?
Right: Are you related to him in any way?

Note: Also, “relation to.” Example: Has she any relation to you?

h. prepositions
56. Repent of, not from.
Wrong: Samuel repented from his criminal acts.
Right: Samuel repented of his criminal acts.
Note: But “repentance” takes “for.” Example: Samuel feels repentance for his sin.

57. Satisfied with, not from.
Wrong: Are you satisfied from your grades in Public Corporations?
Right: Are you satisfied with your grades in Public Corporations?

58. Similar to, not with.
Wrong: Your law book is not similar with mine.
Right: Your law book is not similar to mine.
h. prepositions
59. Sit at a desk, etc., not on a desk.
Wrong: The professor often sits on his desk.
Right: The professor often sits at his desk.

Note: Also, “sit at a table.” But “on a chair,” “on a bench,” “on a sofa,” “in an
armchair,” “in a tree” or “up a tree.” But “A bird sometimes perches (sits) on a
tree.”

60. Spend on, not for.
Wrong: I spend a lot of time for my studies inn legal writing.
Right: I spend a lot of time on my studies inn legal writing.

h. prepositions
61. Succeed in, not at.
Wrong: I always hope he will succeed at his project.
Right: I always hope he will succeed in his project.

Note: But a person succeeds to a property or a title. Example: King Philip II
succeeded to the throne in 1978.

62. Superior to, not from or than.
Wrong: This is superior from (or than) the quality of that plastic.
Right: This is superior to the quality of that plastic.

Note: Also use “inferior to,” “junior to,” “senior to,” “prior to.”
h. prepositions
63. Sure of, not for.
Wrong: I am sure for the integrity of the President.
Right: I am sure of the integrity of the President.

64. Surprised at, not for or for.
Wrong: We were surprised for his failure to become a valedictorian.
Right: We were surprised at his failure to become a valedictorian.

Note: Also, “astonished at,” “amazed at,” “alarmed at,” “puzzled at,” “shocked
at.”
h. prepositions
65. Suspect of, not for.
Wrong: I suspect him for stabbing Pedro.
Right: I suspect him of stabbing Pedro.

Note: Also, ”suspicious of.” Example: Lawyers are suspicious of hostile witnesses.

66. Take by, not from.
Wrong: The lawyer took his witness from the hand.
Right: The lawyer took his witness by the hand.

Note: Also “hold by,” “catch by,” “seize by,” “snatch by,” “grasp by.”
h. prepositions
67. Tie to, not on.
Wrong: The arresting officer tied the suspect on a tree.
Right: The arresting officer tied the suspect to a tree.

Note: Also “bind to.” Example: The prisoner was bound to the dungeons.

68. Tired of, not from.
Wrong: The participants in the law seminar are tired from egg sandwich.
Right: The participants in the law seminar are tired of egg sandwich.

h. prepositions
69. Translate into, not to.
Wrong: Please translate this latin phrase to English.
Right: Please translate this latin phrase into English.

70. Tremble with cold, etc., not from cold, etc.
Wrong: The eyewitness was trembling from cold.
Right: The eyewitness was trembling with cold.

Note: Also, “shake with” and “shiver with.” Example: Agustin was shaking with
fear when he was arrested by the barangay tanods.

h. prepositions
71. Warn (a person) of danger, not about danger.
Wrong: The private complaints were warned about the danger of testifying.
Right: The private complaints were warned of the danger of testifying.

Note: But we warn a person against a fault. Example: His professor warned her
against wearing miniskirts in class.

71. Write in ink, not with ink.
Wrong: I have written my autobiography with ink.
Right: I have written my autobiography in ink.

h. prepositions
Note: To “write in ink,” “in pencil” or “in chalk” means the marks that a pen, a
pencil or a piece of chalk makes. If, however, the instrument is meant by which the
writing is done, we use “with” instead “in.” Example: I write with (a pentel pen,
a crayon).

h. prepositions
Necessary Prepositions
1. Prepositions should not be omitted when they are needed to make the meaning clear.
Examples:
It is of no use to object to the question.
Randy will be at home tomorrow.
The tree was a foot in diameter.
Will you refrain from reading aloud?
His remark is unworthy of your voice.
They are going either to Boracay or to Puerto Galera.
On this side of the river is a group of houses.
An appointment with the lawyer prevented Jimmy from going to the movies.
I had no faith in, or hope for, the movement.

h. prepositions
Unnecessary Prepositions
2. The words below do not require a preposition to go with them because they have within
them the meaning of the preposition.

Examples:
2.1 Answer (reply to)
Wrong: Madam witness, please answer to my question.
Right: Madam witness, please answer my question.

However, when you use the noun “answer,” it must have a preposition “to.” Example:
Your answer to my question is not responsive.

h. prepositions
2.2 Approach (come near to)
Wrong: Do not approach to that prison cell.
Right: Do not approach that prison cell.

2.3 Ask (put a question to)
Wrong: I asked to the Clerk of Court about the delay.
Right: I asked the Clerk of Court about the delay.

2.4 Attack (go and fight against)
Wrong: The accused attacked against the rival gang members.
Right: The accused attacked the rival gang members.

h. prepositions
2.5 Comprise (consist of)
Wrong: The chapter on human relations comprises of ten articles.
Right: The chapter on human relations comprises ten articles.

2.6 Enter (go into)
Wrong: We entered into the prisoner’s detention room.
Right: We entered the prisoner’s detention room.

2.7 Finish (come to the end of)
Wrong: I have finished from my lecture.
Right: I have finished my lecture.

h. prepositions
2.8 Leave (depart from)
Wrong: The seminar participants left from Manila yesterday.
Right: The seminar participants left Manila yesterday.

2.9 Obey (act according to)
Wrong: Lawyers should obey to final and executory decisions.
Right: Lawyers should obey final and executory decisions.

3.0 Permit (give permission to)
Wrong: The judge permitted to witness to stay in his chamber.
Right: The judge permitted the witness to stay in his chamber.

h. prepositions
3.1 Reach (arrive at)
Wrong: The witnesses reached at the courtroom early.
Right: The witnesses reached the courtroom early.

3.2
Resemble (be similar to)
Wrong: Does this gun, used as an exhibit resemble to his gun?
Right: Does this gun, used as an exhibit resemble his gun?

3.3
Tell (say to)
Wrong: I told to the sheriff to come at once.
Right: I told the sheriff to come at once.
h. prepositions
3.4 Behind (at the back of)
Wrong: The eyewitness hid behind of the bamboo wall
while the shooting incident took place.
Right: The eyewitness hid behind the bamboo wall while the
shooting incident took place.

3.5 Inside (on the inner side of)
Wrong: The spectators went inside of the courtroom.
Right: The spectators went inside the courtroom.

3.6 Outside (out of)
Wrong: The robbers stood outside of the door.
Right: The robbers stood outside the door.
h. prepositions
Prepositions that are often Confused
Watch out for prepositions that are often confused. For example:

1. To and At
1.1 “To” is used to express motion from one place to another.

Example:
Wrong: We come at Manila City Hall to attend our hearing every morning.
Right: We come to Manila City Hall to attend our hearing every morning.

h. prepositions
1.2 At” is used to denote position or rest.

Example:
Wrong: The bailiff is standing to the door.
Right: The bailiff is standing at the door.

2. To and Till
2.1 “To” is used with distance.

Example:
Wrong: We jogged till Luneta and back.
Right: We jogged to Luneta and back.
h. prepositions
2.2 “Till” or until is used with time.

Example:
Wrong: I shall stay here in Ilocos Norte to next week.
Right: I shall stay here in Ilocos Norte till next week.

3. At and In
3.1 “At is used before the names of small municipalities or in speaking of a distant
place.

Example:
Wrong: My family spent its summer holidays in Sagada.
Right: My family spent its summer holidays at Sagada.
h. prepositions
3.2 “In” is generally used before the names of countries and large cities or before the
name of the place in which one is at the time of speaking.

Example:
Wrong: She lives at Singapore or at Hongkong.
Right: She lives in Singapore or in Hongkong.

h. prepositions
4. In and Into
4.1 “In” denotes position or rest inside something.

Example:
Wrong: The judge spent all the day into his chamber writing decisions.
Right: The judge spent all the day in his chamber writing decisions.

4.2 “Into” denotes motion or direction towards the inside of something.

Example:
Wrong: The accused came in the courtroom and testified.
Right: The accused came into the courtroom and testified.
h. prepositions
5. On, At, In (Time)
5.1 “On” is used with the days of the week or month.

Example:
Wrong: The subpoena will be sent at Monday.
Right: The subpoena will be sent on Monday.

5.2 “At” is used with the exact time.

Example:
Wrong: Court hearings normally start on nine o’clock in the morning.
Right: Court hearings normally start at nine o’clock in the morning.
h. prepositions
5.3 “In” is used with a period of time.
Example:
Wrong: The prosecutor takes a nap at the afternoon.
Right: The prosecutor takes a nap in the afternoon.
6. For and At
6.1 “For” is used if the actual sum is mentioned.
Example:
Wrong: I bought a transcript of stenographic notes at five pesos per
page.
Right: I bought a transcript of stenographic notes for five pesos
per page.
h. prepositions
Use of Prepositions in Law
1. A preposition can be used as an aid to interpret a law. (See U.S. v Dulfu,G.R. No. 4133,
August 10, 1908; Leceste v. Santos, G.R. No. 36886, February 1, 1932; Republic v.
Sandiganbayan, G.R. No. 96073, January 23, 1995)

2. A preposition can also be used to interpret a decision. (San Diego v. Montesa, et al., G.R.
No. L-17985, September 29, 1962)

i. conjunctions
A conjunction is a linking word used to connect words, phrases, or groups of
words in a sentence.

Two Kinds of Conjunctions:

1. Subordinating conjunctions – it joins dependent clauses to main clauses such as if, since,
because, as, while, so that, although, unless.

2. Coordinating conjunctions – it joins words or group of words of equal rank such as and,
but, for, or, nor, either, neither, yet.

i. conjunctions
Rules and Examples of Coordinating or Correlative Conjunctions

1. Correlative conjunctions, that is, conjunctions used in pairs, should be placed next to the
words they connect. These words or expressions should be in parallel construction.

The most common correlatives are either-or, neither-nor, not only-but also,
both-and, whereas-therefore, whether-or.
Examples:
They have read neither the book nor the magazine.

i. conjunctions

Examples:
Not: They have neither read the book nor the magazine.
Litigation work gave me both pleasure and experience.

Not: Litigation work both gave me pleasure and experience.
We visited not only Bohol, but also Cebu, Leyte, and Samar.
Not: We not only visited Bohol, but also Cebu, Leyte, and Samar.

i. conjunctions
With coordinate conjunctions such as and but, ideas must be expressed in similar
construction.
Examples:
He was strong in body and mind.
Or: He was strong physically and mentally.
Not: He was strong in body and also mentally.

i. conjunctions
Rule and Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions
2. When one idea in a sentence is dependent upon another, a subordinating conjunction is

used to connect the dependent with the main thought. Choose the appropriate conjunction to
show the relationship between the clauses.

To show cause: as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since

To indicate concession: although, even if, though

i. conjunctions
Rule and Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions
• To express condition: but that, except that, if, if only, in case, provided that, unless
• To make a comparison: as, as if, more than, rather than, that
• To show manner: as, as if
• To explain place: where, wherever
• To indicate purpose: in order that, so that, that
• To fix a time: after, as, as long as, as often as, before, ever since, just as, now that,
since, till, until, when, whenever, whereupon, while

J. Capitalization
Rules on Capitalization:
1. Always capitalize the first word of every sentence, whether or not it is a complete
sentence.
Example:
One of the lawyer’s great assets is good judgment.

2. Always capitalize the first word of every line of poetry.
Example:
To the glory that was Greece.
And the grandeur that was Rome.

J. Capitalization
3. Capitalize all proper nouns that are names of individuals.

Example:
Maria Magdalena B. Batangan
(1) Capitalize epithets added to proper names or applied to people or laces.

Examples:
the UST Golden Tigers DZXL, Ang Radyo Natin
the Great Plebian the Sunshine City
the University Belt the Summer Capital of the Philippines

J. Capitalization
(2) Capitalize father and mother when used in address, but do not capitalize such as nouns
when possessive pronoun is used with them.

Examples:
Yes, Mother, I shot the snatcher.
My mother is at home.

(3) Capitalize prefixes uncle, aunt, and other family terms when used with a proper noun.

Example:
I heard Aunt Lucilla say that she favors same sex marriages.

J. Capitalization
4. Capitalize all academic degrees following the name whether abbreviated or written out.
Examples:
Allan G. Dimalanta, Litt.D,; Joshua T. David, Ph.D.; Mario H. Butay,
Master of Arts.

(1) When writing more than one degree after a name, arrange according to their importance,
the most important last; when they are of the same rank, as various doctoral degrees,
according to the time of their being granted.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
Jessie R. Cabel, LL.B., M.A.
Joselito D. Soriano, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL.D.
Manuel R. Gruba, M.D., Ph.D.

5. Always capitalize all academic and religious titles; as Doctor, Bishop, Professor, Dean,
when preceding a name.
Examples:
Dr. Donato E. Lazo
Bishop Teodoro M. Bacani
Professor Luis A. Jalandoni
Dean Carlos M. Ortega
J. Capitalization
(1) With Reverend, other academic titles and abbreviations for academic degrees may be
used. The fllowing are correct forms for the use or Reverend:

Examples:
Rev. John Lana } minister, pastor, rector, or
} Roman Catholic
The Reverend John Lana } priest, without doctoral degrees
The Reverend John Lana, D.D.
The Reverend Dr. John Lana
The Reverend President John Lana
The Reverend Professor John Lana

J. Capitalization
The Very Reverend Dean John Lana
The Right Reverend John Lana (Bishop)
The Most Reverend John Lana (Archbishop)
The Very Reverend John Lana (Monsignor)
The Reverend Mother Superior
 The article “the” when preceding Reverend in a sentence should not be capitalized. The
abbreviation Rev. should not be used when preceded by “the.”

Examples:
On Sunday the (not The) Reverend Roy Hizon will preside.
We had the Reverend (not The Rev.) Roy Hizon.

J. Capitalization
(2) The title Reverend is an adjective, not a noun, and must, therefore, always be used with a
given name or initials, on the envelope or in writing the inside address, as:
Rev. John L. Lana or Rev. J.L. Lana
Not
Rev. Lana
It is permissible, however, in referring to a clergyman in the body of a letter, to write.
Rev. Mr. Lana or Rev. Dr. Lana

Although it is considered better form to use the given name with the title in even
such a reference.

J. Capitalization
(3) The titles Reverend and Doctor are usually abbreviated, but are often spelled out in
formal use. Reverend is not used in the salutation of a letter. Where there is no other
title, the salutation is Dear Mr. _______, Dear Mrs. _______, or Dear Miss _______.
(4) Do not capitalize the following when they stand alone:

Examples:
judge rabbi
justice elder rector
principal consul general attaché

J. Capitalization
professor pastor consul
superintendent priest minister (of religion)

Examples:
The rector has engaged a new secretary.
Did the professor receive his class list from the registrar or from the clerk?
The judge asked the clerk of court for all jurisprudence on rape cases.

J. Capitalization
6. It is mandatory to capitalize all titles of rank, honor, or respect when preceding the name.

Examples:
President ___________ Speaker_____________
Vice President_______ Governor____________
Mayor______________ Barangay Captain_____
General_____________ Chief Justice_________

J. Capitalization
7. Likewise, capitalize all Government titles when referring to definite persons in high
positions or to their positions, and all titles of honor or nobility when referring to
specific persons.
Examples:
the Secretary of Defense the Senator from Cagayan
the Secretary of the Treasury Military Chaplain
the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury
Director, Phil. Coast and Geodetic Survey
Associate Justice of the Supreme Court
the President of the French Republic
Chairman of the Ad Hoc Committee
the Archbishop of Nueva Segovia
J. Capitalization
8. Also, capitalize a title of preeminence or distinction following the name of a person or
when used alone as a substitute for the name.

Examples:
Joseph E. Estrada, thirteenth President of the Republic of the Philippines; the
President; the Chief Executive; Commander-in-Chief.
Senen Bacani, Secretary of Agriculture; the Secretary

(1) Titles of city, or state officials (except Governor) are usually not capitalized except as a
form of courtesy in the body of a letter, in the inside address, and after the signature.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
Lito L. Atienza, mayor of Manila
George Z. Hizon, municipal clerk
Horacio H. de la Costa, superitendent of schools

(2) In reports and in correspondence, business titles referring to positions of authority are
usually capitalized as a form of courtesy when they refer to definite individuals or when a
company refers to its own officers.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
Linda O. Bandal, President of the Philippine Cotton Association, called the meeting to
order.
The Chairman of the Board of the UST ROTC Foundation was authorized by the
stockholders to increase the dividend.

J. Capitalization
9. Titles are sometimes used instead of the names of those who bear them. In such cases,
when a definite person is referred to in the singular number, the title is to be capitalized.

9.1 In the second person if used as synonyms of proper names.

Examples:
Mr. Secretary, please examine the records.
You will report, Captain, to General Headquarters.
Do you think, Councilor, this tax ordinance will be approved?
Do not capitalize sir, madam, monsieur, and such terms used alone in address.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
What course of action would you suggest, sir?
Why, madam, think what it means.
And so, my fellow classmates, the reason that I went away from Jolo is that I sometimes get
scared down there.

9.2 In the third person.

Examples:
When the Governor, escorted by local Lakas-NUCD members, appeared at the door, there
was a thunderous applause from the crowd.
J. Capitalization
10. Always capitalize the words department, bureau, service station, office, agency,
commission, and board if referring to a bureau or executive department of the
Philippine Government when the name is given.

Examples:
the Department of Defense Subic Naval Station
the Bureau of Customs the Foreign Service
the Central Monetary Board
the Securities and Exchange Commission

J. Capitalization
11. But do not capitalize department, office, bureau and like words when used without a
name or if used as an adjective.
Examples:
I am going to the office.
He was employed by one of the government bureaus.
The department secretary filed the report.

12. But capitalize committee with a name or in place of the Philippines when referring to all
standing and select committees of the Senate and the House of Representative.
Examples:
House Census Committee Committee on Ways and Means
J. Capitalization
13. It is mandatory that we capitalize Courts when used with a definite name.

Examples:
the Philippine Supreme Court the Court of Tax Appeals
Capitalize Court when meaning a judge or judicial tribunal in direct personal

reference to such a judge or tribunal.

J. Capitalization
14. Always capitalize the word Cabinet when referring to the Cabinet of the President of
the Philippines.
Examples:
Cabinet officer
the President’s Cabinet
the chief post of the Cabinet

15. Usage varies as to the capitalization of administration. When referring to the political
party in power or when used with a name to designate a Government board,
administration is usually capitalized.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
the Administration
the Arroyo Administration
Veteran’s Administration

16. Always capitalize ant Philippine Government commission when it is designated by its
name.

Examples:
Atomic energy Commission
Commission on Settlement of Land Problems
Videogram Regulatory Board
J. Capitalization
Also capitalize commission when standing alone, if it refers to a national commission
already named.

17. Likewise, capitalize nation and republic when used as a synonym for the Philippines or
when used with a name to designate a definite nation.

Examples:
These defense measures are essential to the safety of the Nation.
“With the election of this great statesman, the future of the Republic is assured,”
declared the chairman of the winning party.
But: Every nation in this hemisphere is invited to participate in the forthcoming
convention.
J. Capitalization
18. Always capitalize national when preceding a capitalized word.
Examples:
National Capital
National Academy of Sports
The National Government

19. Always capitalize the names of organized bodies and their adherents.
Examples:
Lakas NUCD Socialists
Shriners Communists
However, usage differs as to the capitalization of the word party.
the Communist Party or the Communist party.
J. Capitalization
20. Capitalize names of clubs, associations, institutes, orders, companies, foundations,
funds, groups, etc.

Examples:
the Rotary Club of Cubao East Knights of Columbus
Rex Publishing Company National Institute of Mental Health

J. Capitalization
21. However, do not capitalize clubs, associations, institutes, orders, colleges, and the like
when used alone, unless they have the value of a proper noun.

Examples:
He belonged to a carpenters’ labor federation.
The clubs and associations of this city are numerous.
The Association voted on the question of garbage dues.
The Board will meet on June 15.

J. Capitalization
22. Capitalize names of squares, parks, towers, monuments, statues, buildings,
thoroughfares, churches.

Examples:
Greenbelt Square the Mormon Temple
the Libingan ng mga Bayani the Banauang Bridge
or the Luneta Monument Mansion House (Baguio)
Ali Mall
Metropolitan Museum of Fame
The Famas Hall of Fame
Himlayang Pilipino Memorial Park

J. Capitalization
23. Capitalize all proper names denoting political divisions.

Examples:
United Kingdom the Papal States
Fourth Precinct the Dominion of Canada
Sixth District

24. Always capitalize college, university, seminary, school, high school, etc., when used
when a proper name. However, when such words are used alone, do not capitalize
unless the word stands for a definite college or university and has value of a proper
name.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
PSBA UST High School
the College of Fine Arts Students Hall
the UP Graduate School Philippine Christian University

25. Capitalize church when used with a name to designate a body of religious belief or a
building and also when it designates the Church Universal; capitalize cathedral,
synagogue, temple, and chapel when used with a name.

J. Capitalization
Examples:
the Roman Catholic the Manila Cathedral
Protestant Episcopal Church FEU Chapel
the Presbyterian Church the Methodist Church

26. When church, cathedral, synagogue, temple, and chapel are used without a name or in a
general sense, do not capitalize them.

Examples:
church history synagogue services
cathedrals of Baguio the temple driveway

J. Capitalization
27. Always capitalize all names for the Bible, for parts and versions of the Bible, and all
names of other sacred books.

Examples:
Bible Lord’s Prayer
Scriptures Twenty-third Psalm
Holy Writ Gospel of Mark
Word of God King James Version
Holy Bible Authorized Version
New Testament Revised Standard Version
the Ten Commandments Koran

J. Capitalization
28. Also, capitalize all known names for the Deity.
Examples:
Ama Namin Supreme Being
Almighty Father Panginoong Diyos
Judge of Nations Divine Providence
Jehovah Lord of Hosts
Messiah the Comforter Holy Spirit
Son of Man Holy Trinity
King of the Jews Holy Redeemer

29. Always capitalize the Virgin Mary, the Virgin, the Blessed Virgin, Madonna, the Holy
Mother, Our Lady.
J. Capitalization
30. In the Bible and in the Book of Common Prayer, pronouns relating to the Deity are not
capitalized.

Examples:
O Lord, thou hast been our dwelling-lace in all generations.
And he looked up and saw the rich men that were casting their gifts into the treasury.

All pronouns referring to the Supreme Being, or any member of the Christian Trinity
when closely preceded or followed by a distinct reference to the Deity, should be
capitalized.

J. Capitalization
31. Capitalize Heaven when referring to the Deity, and Paradise and Heaven only when
referring to the hereafter, also Hades, but not hell.

Examples:
Her prayers, whom Heaven delights to hear.
New thoughts of God, new hopes of Heaven.
He descended into hell.
And in Hades, he lifted up his eyes, being in torment.

J. Capitalization
32. Capitalize the Pope, or the Popes, always; also Holy Father, Pontiff, and Holiness,
meaning the Pope; Cardinal, Apostolic Delegate, Archbishop, Bishop, Moderator, and
Pastor before personal names; also when used separately after the person has been
mentioned or when used in direct reference to persons holding office.

33. Always capitalize all names of creeds and confessions of faith and general Biblical
terms.
Examples:
The Apostles’ Creed Lord’s Supper
Canon Law Creed of Pius IV
The New Testament the Ten Commandments

J. Capitalization
34. Capitalize Devil, the Evil One, the Adversary, the Father of Lies, and Beelzebub
meaning Satan.

Example:
And the great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil
and Satan . . . . .
However, do not capitalize when used in general sense or as an expletive.

J. Capitalization
35. It is also mandatory to capitalize all names of holy days and holidays.

Examples:
Christmas Feast of Tabernacles
Easter Sunday Memorial Day
Good Friday New Year’s Day
Labor Day Rizal Day
Independence Day All Saints’ Day

J. Capitalization
36. Capitalize the first word of each item in an outline. This is very common in Brief
writing.
Example:
1. Timeliness of the Petition.
2. Brief Statement of Facts and of the Case.
3. Arguments/Discussion.

37. Capitalize the first word of every complete quotation.
Example:
The child cried, “Where is my new toy?”

J. Capitalization
Example:
(1) Do not capitalize the first word of a direct quotation when the quotation is
introduced indirectly in the text.

Example:
The governor called the explosion “a medical disaster and a legal quagmire.”

(2) Do not capitalize that part of a quotation resumed within the same sentence.

J. Capitalization
Example:
“Men,” said Luis, “are by nature polygamous.”

(3) Capitalize the first word of a question made in direct form but not quoted.

Example:
The eighteenth century asked of a thing, Is it rational? The seventeenth century asked
for a thing, Is it legal? Or, when it went further, Is it according to conscience?

J. Capitalization
38. Do not capitalize the first word of an indirect question or statement.

Example:
He asked what was the meaning of the party’s steady growth in power.
Imelda says that it is charm which is the basis of enduring art.

39. Do not capitalize a partial quotation when this quotation os used as a motto on the title
page or as a heading of a chapter.

Example:
. . . the cherished companion of my life, in whose affections, unabated on both sides, I
had lived the last ten years in unchequered happiness.
J. Capitalization
40. Do not capitalize a parenthetical statement that occurs in the middle of a sentence.
Example:
The planes (all of them now out of date) were grounded.
The model he chose (she arrived as we were speaking) assumed a languid pose.

41. Capitalize the first word of exclamatory or of interrogative sentences used in a series.
Example:
O Rome! My country! City of the soul!

J. Capitalization
42. Capitalize Whereas and Resolved in resolutions and the first word following Resolved.
A comma follows Resolved.

Example:
Whereas the Chairman of the Board . . . . .
Resolved, That the Phil. National Red Cross urges its member units to work for . . . . .

But: When whereas is written in full capitals, a comma follows:
WHEREAS, in order to preserve open space for the enjoyment of present and future
generations. . .

J. Capitalization
43. Capitalize the article the, or its equivalent in a foreign language, when it is the
authorized part of the geographical name, of a title of a book or of a work of art, or
when incorporated as part of the legal name of a company or of an institution.
Geographical names: The Hague, The Netherlands, the Mehan Garden.

44. When used with personal titles if it is not the first word in a sentence, the should not be
capitalized.

Examples:
Two new ex-officio members of the Board were the Reverend Philip Bautista and the
Honorable Nestor Mariano.

J. Capitalization
45. Personifications of abstract ideas or objects are sometimes capitalized.

Examples:
In the name of Reason, will you please consider the results of such actions.
It has been said that Man proposes, God disposes.

J. Capitalization
46. Capitalize all principal words (that is, nouns, pronouns, adjective, adverbs, verbs, and
first words) in titles of books, pictures, plays, radio programs, television shows, musical
compositions, documents, reports, papers, proceedings, captions, display lines,
headings.

Examples:
Books: A Handbook on Firearms and Explosives
Pictures: Da Vinci’s “Last Supper”
Radio programs: MGB with Korina Sanchez
Television shows: Debate with Mare and Pare
Musical Compositions: George Canseco’s “Kastilyomg Buhangin”
J. Capitalization
Examples:
Documents, Reports, and Proceedings: Philippine Constitution Report on the Immigration
Proceedings of Chinese Nationals

47. Also capitalize scientific names of the world’s eras, common names for historical epochs,
period in the history of literature or language, and important events.
Examples:
the Neolithic age the Korean War
Japanese invasion the Third Reich
the Fourth Glacial age Revolutionary period
the Middle Ages the Ming Dynasty
the Renaissance the Battle of the Bulge
J. Capitalization
48. Capitalize all names of the bodies of the solar system except for earth, moon, stars,
and sun (unless they are personified or used in an astronomical context.)

Examples:
the Milky Ways Orion
the Great Bear the North Star
the Big Dipper the Southern Cross
Venus

J. Capitalization
49. Capitalize in botanical, geological, zoological, and paleontological matter the scientific
(Latin) names of divisions, orders, families, and genera, but not their English
derivatives.
Examples:
Cedrus libani Styrax californica
Felis leo Conodectes favosus
Cocos nucifera Epigaea repens

50. However, do not capitalize abbreviations unless the words they represent are usually
capitalized, as, F. or Fahr. (Fahrenheit) or C. (Celsius); or unless the abbreviation has
been capitalized by custom, as ETA (estimated time of arrival) or No. (number).
J. Capitalization
51. Abbreviations for morning and afternoon may be written as follows:
a.m. or A.M.
p.m. or P.M.

52. Do not capitalize units of measurement such as 6 ft., 4 lbs., 3 qts.
53. Capitalize most adjectives formed from proper nouns.

Examples:
Arabic Nipponese
British Olympian
Elizabethan Parisian
Marcosian Rooseveltian
J. Capitalization
54. Capitalize both parts of a hyphenated word if each part is ordinarily capitalized:
Filipino-American war, Chinese-Filipino ancestry. When a prefix that is part of a
hyphenated word is ordinarily written without a capital, it is not capitalized when
combined with a proper non except when used as the name of an organization or in a
title that would require capitalization.

Examples:
anti-American non-Swedish
intra-European trans-Canadian
but
Inter-American Artists Trans-American Railway
J. Capitalization
While authorities differ on the capitalization of hyphenated words in titles and
headings, this simple rule is generally accepted:
In titles and headings, capitalize words that form parts of hyphenated compounds
without regard of hyphens.

Examples:
New Do-It-Yourself Landscaping Guide
Test-Tube Plants Assure Virus-Free Strawberries
How to Make an Ice-Cream Drive-In Pay
J. Capitalization
55. A list of words and expressions showing their generally accepted capitalization
follows. Note that some words derived from proper nouns have developed a special
meaning; these words are no longer capitalized.

Examples:
Afghan hound mercurial
Allies (World Wars I and II) mid-atlantic
Philippine history Marikina leather
Italian citizens Russian dressing
English literature Russian olive
French bread

WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
CONFUSED AND MISUSED
330
One of the qualities of a good lawyer according to former Dean Roscoe Pound of the
Harvard School of Law is the ability to write clearly and intelligently. The Supreme Court
once said that “to write intelligently means that a person should know how to write as to be
understood, or should know how to put his ideas in written words so that he understood, or
writes like people in general express their ideas.” (Gregorio v. De Jesus, 65 Phil. 334)
However, the English language has an avalanche of troublesome words. It is in fact a rose
garden, full of chaotic weeds which is indefinable for many lawyers as well as for other
writers. One author boldly commented that:
“Most lawyers write poorly.
331
“That’s not just our lament. Leading lawyers across the country agree. They think modern
legal writing is flabby, prolix, obscure, opaque, ungrammatical, dull, boring, redundant,
disorganized, gray, dense, unimaginative, impersonal, foggy, infirm, indistinct, stilted,
arcane, confused, heavy-handed, jargon- and cliché-ridden, ponderous, weaseling,
overblown, pseudointellectual, hyperbolic, misleading, incivil, labored, bloodless, vacuous,
evasive, pretentious, convoluted, rambling, incoherent, choked, archaic, orotund, and fuzzy.
“Many critics amplified: Lawyers don’t know basic grammar and syntax. They can’t
say anything simply. They have no judgment and don’t know what to include or what to
leave out. They do not know how to tell a story – where to begin, when to end or how to
organize.
332
They get so carried away with their advocacy that they distort and even deceive.” (The
Lawyer’s Guide to Writing Well, Tom Goldstein and Jethro K. Leiberman, pp. 3-4)
It is for this reason that a catalogue of some troublesome words is included in this book
for the information and guidance of all legal writers. After all:
Exactness in the use of words is the basis of all serious thinking. You will get
nowhere without it. Words are clumsy tools, and it is very easy to cut one’s
finger with them, and they need the closest attention in handling; but they are
the only tools we have, and imagination itself cannot work without them.
J.W. Allen
333
List of words and expressions often confused and misused:
Abhorrence of or abhorrence for? Use abhorrence of; abhorrence for is incorrect.
(Ray and Ramsfield, 1)

abolition. So spelled. Not abolishment as what some law students write. There is no word as
abolishment in the dictionary.
abstruse and obtuse. Abstruse is hard to understand. Obtuse means dull, slow.
(Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 227)
334
above-mentioned, above-listed, before-mentioned, etc. Simply these are cumbersome
phrases.

Poor
the above-mentioned court
Better
the court (or give the name of the court again)
(Garner, 100)
acting mayor and acting as mayor – an acting mayor is one who acts such when there is a
vacancy in the post. The one appointed shall hold office for the unexpired term of the office
while acting as mayor is one where there is no vacancy in the post of mayor.
335
One is only acting as such temporarily and during the temporary disability of the regular
incumbent. He is only a “pinch hitter.” (Manlapat v. Salazar, G.R. No. L-8221, Jan. 31,
1956)
adjoin, adjourn, adjure. Adjoin is to be next up, adjourn is to suspend a session and
adjure is to command.
admittance; admission. The first is purely physical [No admittance], whereas the second
is used in the figurative and nonphysical senses. Example: admission to the bar.
(Garner, 100)
336
adapt, adopt. Adapt means to make fit or suitable, to adjust; adopt to take as one’s own, to
accept formally.
(De Vries, 455)
adverse; averse. To be averse to something is to have feelings against it; to be adverse to

something is to be “turned” in opposition against it. We usually think of people being
averse to something and of circumstances as being adverse; but in law, with our adversary
system, we often refer to adverse parties.
(Garner, 101)
337
aforementioned; aforesaid. Expunge these lawyerisms; they have little or no justification
in modern writing.
(Garner, 101)
aggravate. Avoid this word in place of annoy or irritate. In formal prose, aggravate
(literally “to add weight to”) means “to make worse, exacerbate.”
(Garner, 101)
338
alimentary and elementary. Alimentary pertains to nourishment. Elementary is simple and
basic.
(Meriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 228)
all . . . . not. Not all is usually the correct sequence in negative constructions.
Example:
Poor
All writers did not accept Lord Coke’s dictum.
Better
Not all writers accepted Lord Coke’s dictum.
(Garner, 101)
339
all of. Omit of <all the depositions>, except when a pronoun follows <all of us were
deposed>.
(Garner 101)
altogether; all together. The first means “completely, wholly,” or “in all.”
The claims were not altogether unfounded. (wholly)
Altogether, 4,000 members attended the bar convention.
(in all)
The second means “at one place or at the same time” <the defendants were tried all
together>.
340
and/or. Banish from your working vocabulary this “much condemned conjunctive-
disjunctive crutch of sloppy thinkers.”
Reason: It creates ambiguity.

Poor:
a fine of P500.00 and/or imprisonment for not more than 10 days
Better
a fine of P500.00 or imprisonment for not more than 30 days, or both.
The word or usually includes and:
Example:
No food or drink allowed.
341
That sentence does not suggest that, singly, food or drink is disallowed, but that if you take
both food and drink, you have not violated the rule. This is so because and signals in
addition as a conjunction, a connector of added material. And moves items together. Or is
disjunctive; it presents the alternative or the exclusion. Or may be inclusive and exclusive
but not both.
(Garner, 102; LeClercq, 136)
Ante or anti-. Ante- means in front of or before as in antebellum.

Anti- means against or opposite as in anti-intellectual and anti-body.
342
as good as, if not better than. A correctly phrased but awkward and mixed comparison. A
statement will be more effective when if not better is put at the end. (Awkward: My work is
as good as, if not better than, your work. Improved: My work is as good as yours, if not
better.)
(Shaw, 125)

arguendo. Unnecessary and (for many readers) obscure in place of for the sake of argument.
In British legal contexts, arguendo usually means “during the course of argument” – so
unless your readers are all Americans, the word may be even be ambiguous to those familiar
with the word.
(Garner, 103)

343
as far as . . . . is concerned. Wordy filler. Avoid this if you can.
Poor
As far as any damages are concerned, we expect them to be insignificant.
Better
We expect any damages are concerned, we expect them to be insignificant.
(Garner, 103-104)

As if or as though. Either one means in the same way that it would be if. They can be used
interchangeably.
(Ray and Ramsfield, 23; Cf.Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 222)
344
as much or more than. Incorrect for as much as or more than.
(Garner, 104)
as per. Help stamp out this unrefined bit of legaldegook and commercialese. Use in
accordance with or under, if you insist on greater concision, per alone.

Example:
Under the terms of this contract . . .
Rather than
As per the terms of this contract. . .
(Garner, 104)

345
as to. Use this phase only at the beginning of the sentence <As to the other plaintiffs, their
claims are barred>. As a preposition, as to should always be replaced by a more specific
word (of, on, with, for, to, by, in, to, into), or dropped completely.
Example:
The trial court failed to specify as to what [read specify what] the defendant relied on.
(Garner, 104)
as to whether. Delete as to. Whether is sufficient.

(Garner, 104, Strunk and White, 41)

346
as yet. Like the variation as of yet, this phrase is invariably inferior to yet alone, thus far, or
some other equivalent phrase.
(Garner, 104)

as the time that. Try using when instead.

as the point in time. Try using now or currently for a clearer, more concise sentence.

347
Attorney or Lawyer. – Generally, attorney refers to the specific person representing a client.
Example:
Attorney Ulep moved for a new trial.
The term lawyer refers to the general category of people qualified to practice law.

Example:
One hundred lawyers attended the seminar on the New Corporation Code.
348
a while; awhile. A while is a noun phrase meaning a period or interval. Awhile is an adverb
meaning for a short time. When the term is introduced by a preposition, spell it as two
words.

Example:
He rested for a while.
The adverbial use of the term is usually more concise.

Example:
He rested awhile.
(Garner, 104; De Vries, Complete Secretary’s Handbook, 454)
349
basis, on a . . . . Generally, avoid this long-winded phrase.
Poor
The standard must be applied on a case-by-case basis.
Better
The standard must be applied case by case.
(Garner, 104-105)

biannual; biennial. Biannual like semiannual, means “occurring twice a year.” Biennial
means “occurring once every two years.” In other temporal instances, bi-means “every two”
(biweekly, bimonthly) and stands in contrast with semi- meaning “twice every” (semiweekly,
semimonthly). To eliminate likely confusion, write twice-yearly or semiannual, not biannual.
(Garner, 105)
350
case. This word best refers only to a legal case, a medical case, grammatical case, or a case
wine. In legal writing, avoid such phrases as in any case (READ: in any event), in case
(READ: if), in every case (READ: always or in every instance), as is often the case (READ:
often), and as the case may be (reword the idea).
(Garner, 105-106)

case of, in the. Instead of discussing a precedent by saying, In the case of People vs. Luna,
say simply: In people v. Luna.
(Garner, 106)
351
Can hardly or can’t hardly. Can hardly is always correct. Can’t hardly never is. In legal
writing, it is often better to rephrase can hardly with some other phrase like can scarcely or
can barely. Can hardly is used loosely and frequently in speech, and as a result sounds rather
than informal.
(Ray and Ramsfield, 40; Shawn, 127)

center around. Something can center on or revolve around something else, but it cannot
center around, as the center is technically a single point.
(Garner, 106)
claim. This verb originally meant “to lay claim to,” but it is now often used in the sense “to
allege, assert.”
352
Example:
She claimed that the contract had been rescinded.
In this sense, claim often suggests an unsubstantiated assertion:
She claimed . . . . but the evidence was against her.
Avoid using the word merely as a substitute for say or state.
As a noun, claim properly denotes either “a demand for something” <a patent claim> or
“that which is demanded” <her claim was 40nacres>. Using the noun as an equivalent of
assertion is now acceptable:
The defendant cannot support his claim that the plaintiff’s case is time-barred.
(Garner, 106)
353
collaborate and corroborate. Collaborate is to work or act jointly. Corroborate is to
confirm.
(Meriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 229)

common (-) law. Hyphenate the phrase when it functions as an adjective<common-law
misdemeanors> but make it two words as a noun phrase<the common law forbade such
evidence>.
(Garner, 107)

compendium. An abridgment - not, as some mistakenly believed, a vast tome.
Compendious, the adjective, means, “abridged, shortened,” not “voluminous.” (Garner, 107)
354
conclusory. This term means “expressing a factual inference without expressing the facts on
which the inference is based.” Because it is far more common in legal writing than its
variants, conclusional and conclusionary, it is preferable to them.
(Garner, 108)

conform to, conform with or conformin. Use conform to.

consensus. So spelled. Avoid the redundant expressions consensus of opinion and general
consensus.
(Garner, 108)
355
consort and concert. Concert is to act harmony or conjunction. Consort is to keep company.

consul, council and counsel. Consul is a diplomatic official. Council is an administrative
body while counsel is a legal representative; to give advice.

contagious; infectious. A contagious disease is communicable by contact with those
suffering from it. An infectious disease spreads by contact with the germs (e.g., in the air or
in water).
(Garner, 108)

356
correspond to or correspond with. Use correspond with if you mean that you and another
party are writing to each other. Use correspond to if you mean that one point is analogous to
another.
(Ray and Raamsfield, 78)

criterion. One criterion, two criteria.
(Garner, 109)

currently and presently. Although current and present, as nouns, are basically synonymous,
the adverb traditionally signal a difference in time. Example: We are currently (right now)
studying word choice. Presently (in the very near future) we will stop and take a break.
(LeClercq, 138)
357
cynosure and sinecure. Cynosure is one that attracts. Sinecure is an easy job.

deem. Often unnecessary, and usually stilted. Try to avoid it – that is, deem it to be
undesirable in your writing.

defamation; libel; slander. Defamation - an attack upon the reputation of another. It
encompasses both libel (written defamation) and slander (spoken defamation.)

deluded and diluted. Deluded is misled or confused. Diluted is weakened in consistency.
358
depraved and deprived. Depraved is corrupted. Deprived is divested or stripped.

disposal; disposition. Both mean “a getting rid of,” disposal has more often to do with trash
or inconsequential things, or in the phrase at one’s disposal, whereas disposition is used of a
preconceived plan of orderly arrangement <disposition of assets> <disposition of the case>.
(Garner, 111)

Different from, than, to. Different than and different to are considered colloquial by some
authorities, improper and incorrect by others. Use different from. (Shaw 129)
359
differentiate, distinguish. Differentiate means to show specific differences in two or more
things. Distinguish means to point out general differences.
(De Vries, 474)

dissociate. This is preferable to disassociate.
(Garner, 111)

doubt if, doubt that, doubt whether. Doubt if should be avoided in business and legal
writing. Doubt that is the preferred expression in negative or interrogative sentences when
little doubt exists. Doubt whether is usually limited to situations involving strong
uncertainly.
(De Vries, 474)
360
doubtless. This is the correct adverb; doubtlessly is wrong.
(Garner, 111)

due to. Some authorities label this phrase “colloquial” when it is used to mean “because of.”
Some prefer owing to, caused by, on account of and because of. Most important, remember
that due to the fact that is a wordy way of saying the short and simple word since.
(Shaw, 129, De Vries, 474)

during the time that. Try substituting while.
361
each and every one. Discard this trite phrase except in a dialogue.
(Garner, 111, Strunk and White, 45)

-edly. Words in this way are more pervasive in law than elsewhere. Often the classic
adverbial formula in a . . . . manner does not work with such words-allegedly does not mean
“in an alleged manner,” purportedly does not mean “in purported manner,” and admittedly
does not mean “in an admitted manner.” Rather, the unorthodox formula for these word is
passive: it is – ed that. For example, allegedly = it is alleged that, concededly = it is
conceded that, purportedly = it is purported that. Instead of bewailing how unorthodox these
words are, we should, without overworking them, be thankful for the terseness they make
possible. Other such words include supposedly, assertedly, reportedly, and confessedly.
(Garner, 111-112)
362
effete. This term means “barren, exhausted,” or “decedent,” not “effeminate.”
(Garner, 112)

e.g.; i.e. The first, short for exempli gratia, means “for example.”
He tries all types of cases, e.g., commercial cases, personal-injury cases, divorces.
The second, short of id est, means “that is.”
She is dean of the law school, i.e., the final authority on matters of this kind.
Generally, as in the examples just given, these abbreviated phrases should be set off by
commas. (Garner, 112)

363
ejectment and ejection. Use ejectment in law when you refer to forcible entry and unlawful
detainer actions (Cf. Rule 70, 1997 Rules of Civil Procedure). Ejection on the other hand is a
noun meaning an ejecting or being ejected.

enclosed please find. The phrase is swollen deadwood in lawyers’ correspondence, so avoid
it. Instead, write I have enclosed or (less good) Enclosed is . . . .
(Garner, 112)

end result. Result is adequate unless you are discussing complicated math formulas.
364
enjoin. The word has opposite senses: (1) “to direct, mandate,” and (2) “to prohibit.” In
sense (1), the verb takes the preposition to or upon.
Secrecy is enjoined upon the jurors.
We are enjoined to decide only actual cases or controversies.
In sense (2), the usual preposition is form:
The court enjoined the pilots from continuing the strke.
(Garner, 113)

enthused. As an adjective <very enthused>, this word is always inferior to enthusiastic. As a
verb <Wonderful!” he enthused>, it smacks of catchpenny journalism.
(Garner, 113: Shaw, 130)
365
enormity. Use only in the sense of “monstrous wickedness.” Misleading if not wrong when
used to express bigness.
(Strunk and White, 45)

equal, coequal. Equal means the same in number, i.e., equal number. Coequal means a
person or thing equal to another in rank and dignity.
(Garner, 113)

equally as . . . . as. This wording is incorrect. Equally as good as, for example, wrongly
displaces as good as or equally good.
(Garner, 113)
366
erasable and irascible. Erasable is removable by erasing. Irascible is hot-tempered.

Esq. this abbreviation is commonly used after lawyers’ name in the United States, nowadays
after the names of men and women alike. The abbreviation is never to be put on one’s own
name-neither on a business card nor on self-addressed return envelopes. Nor should it be
used with any other title, such as Mr. or Ms. In Great Britain, esquire is used of any man
thought to have the social status of a gentleman.
(Garner, 113)
367
Etc. short for et cetera (and other things). Lawyers should generally – in pleading, for
example – attempt to be as specific as possible instead of resorting to this term. Still, it
would be foolish to lay down an absolute proscription against using etc., for often one cannot
practicably list all that should be listed. Rather than convey to the reader that a list is
seemingly complete when it is not, the writer might justifiably use etc. (always the
abbreviation). Use the serial comma before this word, but never the word and. Be careful not
to use etc. after a list of persons; et al., short for et alii (and others), serves that function.
(Garner, 113-114)

everywhere. Always written as one word. Every place is commonly misused for
everywhere. (De Vries, 478)
368
evidentiary. This is the customary word, not evidential.
(Garner, 114)

fact. A fact cannot literally be false; if something is a fact, then it is by its very nature clue.
Yet in law we frequently use facts as a short form of alleged facts:
No order may recite untrue facts.
Whenever possible, avoid that type of elliptical expression. Still, the tautology (true facts)
and the oxymoron (untrue facts) are not likely to disappear from legal writing.
(Garner, 114)

369
Fact of the matter, the. Omit or drop this useless phrase. Reason: There is no loss meaning
in the sentence.
Example:
The defendant did not raise the issue of lack of jurisdiction until he hired a new lawyer.
Rather than:
The fact of the matter is that the defendant did not raise the issue of lack of jurisdiction
until he hired a new lawyer.

370
fact that, the. Avoid this phrase too. Reason: it adds extra words without extra meaning.
Example:
The failure of the weighing scale was caused by inferior materials.
Rather than:
The failure of the weighing scale was due to the fact that it was caused by inferior
materials.

factor. The word properly means “an agent or cause that contributes to a particular result.”
Avoid using it in the slipshod sense “a thing to be considered; event, occurrence.” (Garner,
114)
371
fatal. Not comparable if anything is fatal, it cannot be more fatal. More nearly fatal is
allowable.
(De Vries, 479)

finalize. A favorite word of jargon mongers. For that reason alone, and also because the
coinage does not fill a gap in the language (use make final). It is to be eschewed.
(Garner, 114)

free from, free of. The former is idiomatically correct. Free of is considered either
colloquial or dialectical.
(Shaw, 131)
372
foregoing. A lawyerism to be dispensed with. (Garner, 115)

foreword and forward. A foreword is a preface or introduction. Forward suggests
movement or ability.” (Shaw, 131)

fort and forte. Fort means an “enclosed place,” a fortified building. Forte means “special
accomplishment or ability.” (Shaw, 131)

gage and gauge. Gage is a security deposit while gauge is to measure.
373
gait and gate. Gait is a manner of walking while gate is an opening in a wall of fence.

genius and genus. The former refers to the great ability. Genus refers to a class or kind.
(Shaw, 132)

gibe, jibe and jive. Gibe is to tease or mock; jibe is to agree while jive is foolish talk.

374
guilt; culpability. The second is a matter of fact regardless of whether it ever becomes
known; the first is what is determined by the trier of fact. Learned Hand is said to have
remarked that anyone can be killer, but only a jury can make a murderer.
(Garner 116)

had. Had . . . have is sometimes carelessly used in inverted sentences when only had is
required.
Example:
Had I been the judge, I would have acquitted him.
An incorrect use of had . . . have occurs when the sentence has not been inverted.

375
Example:
If I had been (not had have been) a judge I would have acquitted him.
(De Vries, 481)

hardly. The word may mean “vigorously” or “harshly” <he was beaten hardly>, but you
ought not to use it in either of these senses. The customary meaning today is “only just,
barely.”

She ate hardly anything.
The difference in placement –
he was beaten hardly
376
he was hardy beaten –
is not enough to eliminate doubts in the reader’s mind about what you intend. But
hardly in the customary modern sense is hardly ever ambiguous.
(Garner, 116)

He is a man who. A common type of redundant expression. Thus, it is better to say.
He is very ambitious.
Rather than:
He is a man who is very ambitious.

377
hearsay and heresy. Hearsay is rumor while heresy is a dissent from a dominant theory.

herein; hereinafter; hereinbefore; herewith; thereof; therein; thereout; whereof;
wherefore; wherein. “[It all . . . . fully appears from the affidavit of the witness thereof
heretofore herein filed.” Can you understand this sentence?
(Garner, 116)

378
hereinafter called. A stilted legalism easily avoided. Ordinarily, a shortened name
unambiguously follows the full name.

Poor
Philguarantee Fire & Casualty Company (hereinafter called “Philguarantee”) moves
that the court dismiss the action.

Better
Philguarantee Fire & Casualty Company moves that the court dismiss the action. Acme
submits that . . .
(Garner, 116)

379
hopefully. Strike this word from your vocabulary. Say I hope or it is to be hoped instead.
Example:
Poor
Hopefully, the court will grant our petition for certiorari.
Better
I hope that the court will grant our petition for certiorari.
Though widespread, the modern use of this word is also widely condemned, because
hopefully has traditionally meant “in a hopeful manner.”
He fazed hopefully into her eyes.
(Garner, 117)
380
identify. Always gives this verb a direct object.
Example:
She identified the relevant documents.
Identify with is voguish and it must be avoided.

Poor
He could identify with her arguments.
Better
He [agreed with?] [understood?] her arguments.
(Garner, 118; De Vries, 483)
381
impact (on). Avoid using impact as a verb. It should not displace the more traditional and
less hyperbolic verbs, such as affect or influence.
Poor
That particular precedent strongly impacted on the court’s decision.
Better
That particular precedent strongly affected the court’s decision.
(Garner, 118)
impinge; infringe. Impinge is followed by on or upon; it does not take a direct object.
Infringe, by contrast, may either take a direct object or not:
to infringe someone’s right
to infringe on someone’s rights 382
Though impinge and infringe are often used as if they were interchangeable, keep in mind
these connotations: impinge = (lit.) to strike or dash upon something else, whereas infringe =
to break in (damage, violate, or weaken).
(Garner, 118-119)

implement. A vogue word beloved by jargon mongers, in whose language policies and plans
are implemented. Cary out is usually better and certainly less vague. (Garner, 119)
imply, infer. Not interchangeable. To imply is to suggest a meaning hinted at but not
explicitly stated. To infer is to draw a conclusion from statements, circumstances or
evidence. (Shaw, 134; Strunk and White, 49)
383
in behalf of and on behalf of. To give a charitable party in behalf of a children’s
organization is to give the party to benefit it. To give a speech on behalf of your law firm
would be to speak as a representative of the firm.
(LeClercq, 140)

in between. Omit in when the phrase is followed by an object or objects.
(Garner, 119)

incurable and incurrable. Insurable is not curable while incurrable is capable of being
incurred.
384
incidentally; incidently. The first means “loosely, casually” or “by the way.”
She made that remark incidentally during the negotiations. (loosely, casually)
The testator, incidentally, made his money in burlesque shows. (by the way)
The second, a much rarer word means “so as to depend on or appertain to something else.”
[E]vidence of other crimes may be presented when they were so blended or connected with
the one on trial that proof of one incidentally involves the other . . . . .
(Garner, 119-120)
385
incident to, incidental to. The first means “closely related to; naturally appearing with”; the
second means “happening by chance and subordinate to some other thing; peripheral.
Example:
A properly executed codicil is incident to a will; an unsigned note attached to a will is
treated as completely incidental to it. (Garner, 120)

indicate. Do not use this word where say or state or show will suffice. (Garner, 120)
inherent and inherit. Inherent is intrinsic while inherit is to receive from an ancestor.
386
in order to. Write to. (Garner, 121)

insofar as. Insofar is written as one word. (De Vries, 485)
in the last analysis. A bankrupt expression. Avoid it. (Strunk and White, 49)

install and instill. Install is to set up for use. Instill is to impart gradually.
intestate and intrastate. Intestate is leaving no will while intrastate is existing within a
taste. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 231)
387
irregardless, disregardless. Each of these two words is an illiteracy. That is, neither is a
standard word and neither should be used under any circumstances, whether in formal or
informal writing. Use regardless instead.
(Shaw, 135; Karls and Szymanski, The Writer’s Handbook, 52)

in search for, in search of. Both of these expressions are commonly used but the latter is
preferred idiom.
(Shaw, 134)

inter alia. Use among others where you can instead of this Latin word. Remember that inter
alia refers to things, not people (for whom inter alios is the proper Latin phrase). Cf. etc.
(Garner, 121)
388
interface. A jargonmongers’ word; leave it to computer experts.
(Garner, 121)

in terms of. In terms of writing, avoid this flotsam phrase.
Poor
In terms of economics, the transaction failed to minimize costs.
Better
The transaction failed to minimize costs.
(Garner, 121)
389
-ize. Adding this suffix to an adjective or noun is one of the most frequent means of forming
new words. True, we have a number of established words such as analogize, fertilize,
harmonize, hospitalize, minimize, proselytize, and summarize. But creating neologisms with
–ize is generally to be discouraged, for they are always ungainly and often superfluous.
Thus, we have no use for accessorize, artificialize, cubiclize, fenderize (= to fix a dented
fender), funiralize, ghettoize, Mirandize, nakedize, prioritize, and so on. The law has a few
legitimate curiosities in –ize (e.g., privatize, collateralize, communitize, and
constitutionalize) and probably needs no more. Careful writers are wary of new words
formed with this suffix.
(Garner, 121-122; Strunk and White, 50)
390
juridical; jural. Jural may act as synonym for legal, but usually it means “of or pertaining
to rights and obligations” <jural relations>. Juridical is rather fancy and old-fashioned term
meaning “relating to judicial proceedings or to the law” <’uses . . . . made by judges or
juridical writers of the terms”- Lord Bowen>.
(Garner, 122)

kind of and sort of. These two phrases are often used in informal speech with the meaning
“rather” or “somewhat.” Restrict it to its literal sense. Example: Amber is a kind of fossil
resin.
(Karls and Szymanski, 53; Strunk and White, 51)
391
know, realize. Know means to perceive, to understand. Realize means to accomplish, to
grasp fully, and implies a more thorough understanding than know.
(De Vries, 486)

kudos. Derived from Greek kydos (“glory”), kudos is a singular noun meaning “praise,
glory.” The word is often mistakenly thought to be plural. Kudo, a false singular, has
therefore come to plague many texts.
(Garner, 123)

latter, last. Do not use the expression the latter part of. The correct expression are toward the
end of, the last part of. (De Vries, 486-487)
392
lease; let. Let, dating from the tenth century, is three hundred years older than lease in the
sense “to grant the temporary possession and use of (land, buildings, rooms, etc.) to another
in consideration of rent.” But both are well established.
(Garner, 123)

like. In standard usage, like is a preposition that governs nouns and noun phrases, not a
conjunction that governs verbs or clauses.
Poor
He argued this case like he argued the previous one.
393
Better
He argued this case as he argued the previous one.
If we changed argue to argument, thereby making a noun phrase out of what had
been a clause, like is appropriate.
His argument in this case was like his argument in the previous one.
This is also considered a “nothing word” if used in trendy talk, i.e., I saw him
like, last Tuesday.
(Garner, 124. See Larry King, How to Talk to Anyone, Anytime, Anywhere, 98)

394
Line; Along this lines. Line is the sense of “course of procedure, conduct, thought” is
allowed but has been so overworked, particularly in the phrase along these lines, that a
writer who aims at freshness or originality had better discard it entirely.

loan, lend. In formal usage, it is best to use lend as the verb and loan as the noun. Loan is
considered permissible, however, when used as a verb denoting the lending of money (as
distinguished from the lending of other things).

395
lots of, a lot of, a whole lot. These terms are colloquial for “many,” “much,” “a great deal.”
The chief objection to their use is that each is a vague, general expression.
(Shaw, 137)

manner; in a manner. This is the long way of expressing an adverb. When possible, use an
adverb in –ly, such as tortuously rather than in a tortious manner. (Garner, 125)

material and materiel. Material is having a relevance or importance while materiel is
equipment and supplies.
396
meaningful. This word, meaning “full of meaning or expression,” is becoming a
meaningless buzzword, especially when used for reasonable.
Poor
The option will expire a meaningful time before the conversion date.
Better
The option will expire a reasonable time before the conversion date.
The word has also been used to mean “significant, important,’ as here:
Poor
We find no meaningful constitutional infraction.
397
Better
We find no significant constitutional infraction.
These uses have left meaningful a vogue word that careful writers avoid. See rule 2.14.
(Garner, 125-126)

medium. The usual plural is media, which always takes a plural verb <the media were
accurate in their reporting>. Mediums is the correct plural when the sense is “clairvoyants,
spiritualists.”(Garner, 126)

meet and mete. Meet is to come into contact with while mete is to allot.
(Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for writers, 232)
398
meretricious, meritorious and meticulous. Meretricious is falsely attractive, meritorious is
deserving reward or honor and meticulous is extremely careful about details. (Merriam and
Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

mitigate; militate. Mitigate = to make less severe or intense. Militate = to exert a strong
influence. Mitigate against is incorrect for, militate against, as here:
Poor
This consideration mitigates against immediate review.
Better
This consideration militates against immediate review.
 Edmund Wilson called this “William Faulkner’s favorite error” here, as in other ways,
Faulkner is no model for the legal writer. (Garner, 126)
399
more than one. Always takes a singular noun and verb, although the meaning is plural.
Example:
More than one defendant is involved. (De Vries, 492)

moot and mute. This adjective once meant only “debatable” (a moot point was one
legitimately the subject of argument), but now it most commonly means “having no practical
significance” (a moot issue being one that a court need not decide).
As for the verb, to moot a point is either (1) to offer it for discussion or (2) to take away its
practical significance. (Garner, 127)
400
Mute is a person unable to speak; to tone down or muffle.

nauseous and nauseated. The first means “sickening to contemplate” the second means
“sick at the stomach.” (Strunk and White, 53)

naval and navel. Naval relates to the navy while navel refers to the belly button. (Merriam
and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

news. Plural in form but singular in meaning.
Example:
The news is good. (De Vries, 493) 401
nobody. Always written as one word. No one is preferred. Use a singular verb with both
nobody and no one.
Example:
No one is working today. (De Vries, 493)

none. This term means (1) “not one,” (2) “not any.” Thus none may correctly take either a
singular or plural verb <none was present> <none were present>, depending on the writer’s
intention. None was is the more emphatic form. (Garner, 128)

no place, nowhere. The former is perfectly sound phrase (There’s no place like home.), but
it cannot be a synonym for nowhere. (She could find her purse nowhere.) [not no place]
(Shaw, 138)
nor; or. Neither should be followed by nor, and either should be followed by or.
neither this nor that
She can neither stand nor walk.
either Brandies or Holmes.
When the alternatives is singular and the other plural, the last noun or noun phrase
determines the number of the verb.
Neither the Federalist Society nor the National
Organization of women supports the nomination.
When one of the alternatives is singular and the other plural, the last noun phrase determines
the number of the verb.
Neither I nor they were present at the meeting.
Either they or she was required to submit a report.
(Garner, 128-129)

nowhere. Always written as one word.
(De Vries, 494)

obviously; certainly; clearly; undeniably. It has become an ironic joke among lawyers that
when an opponent – or for that matter, frequently, a judge – uses one of these words, the
statement that follows is likely to be false, unreasonable, or fraught with doubt. In short, use
obviously sparingly in legal writing.
(Garner, 129)
odds. Always takes a plural verb.
Example:
The odds are against him. (De Vries, 494)

off of. Omit of. (Garner, 129)

oneself. Formerly one’s self but now preferably written as one word.
(De Vries, 494)

orientate. Use the verb to orient, not its overgrown sibling. (Garner, 131)
otherwise. This word creates more run-on sentences in English than any other. It may begin
in a sentence or follow a semicolon, but it should virtually never
follow a comma.
Poor
Liability fastens on the master where his servant is negligent, otherwise there is no
liability.
Better
Liability fastens on the master where his servant is negligent; otherwise, there is no
liability. (Garner, 131)

overly. Strike this word from your vocabulary. Though it is old, overly is almost always
unnecessary, because over- maybe prefixed at will: overboard, overrefined, overoptimistic,
overreached, and so on. If over- seems awkward in any given combination, resort to too or
unduly (too harsh instead of, for example, overharsh). (Garner, 131)
paid and payed. Paid is the past tense and past participle of the verb pay (Example: He paid
all his bills promptly). Payed is used only in the sense of to pay a cable or line (Example: He
payed out the anchor line lowly).
(Shaw, 139-140)

parameters. Technical contexts aside, this jargonistic vogue word is not used by those with
a heightened sensitivity to language. When you can discern what this mush-word means in a
given context, you see immediately that it has displaced a far simpler and more
straightforward term (limits, criteria, considerations).
Poor
The term of the state’s consent to be used define the parameters of the court’s
jurisdiction to entertain suit.
The term of the state’s consent to be used define the limits of the court’s jurisdiction to
entertain suit.
(Garner, 131)

parlay and parley. Parley is to bet again a stake and its winnings while parley is a
discussion of disputed points.

peer, pear, pier. Peer is one of equal standing. Pear is a kind of fruit while pier is a bridge
support.

people, persons. The first is general, the second specific. One refers to English-speaking
people (or peoples), but to the seven persons capable of serving as expert witnesses. The
plural peoples is used when more than one or nation is referred to.
Example:
The peoples of France and Italy share many economics goals.
(De Vries, 495)

Peremptory and preemptory. Peremptory is ending a right of action, debate or delay while
preemptory is preemptive.
(Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook of Writers, 232)

perpetuate, perpetrate. The first means “to prolong or make last (often in perpetuity)” <to
perpetuate traditions>; the second means “to commit or carry out” <to perpetrate a fraud>.
Perpetuate is connotatively neutral <perpetuating folkways, perpetuating the fallacy>,
whereas perpetuate is usually pejorative <perpetrating fraud and other crimes>.
(Garner, 132)

perquisite and prerequisite. Perquisite is a right or privilege while a prerequisite is a
necessary preliminary.
(Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook of Writers, 232)

personally. This word often appears unnecessarily.
Poor
I personally think that the statute bars governmental liability.
Better
I think that the statute bars governmental liability. (Garner, 132)

perspective, prospective and prospectus. Perspective is a view of things; prospective is
relating to the future while prospectus is an introductory description of a course or an
enterprise. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

plaintiff and plaintive. Plaintiff is the complaining party in a litigation. Plaintive means
sorrowful. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)
plan on [go]ing. Write, for example, plan to go. (Garner, 132)

plot and plat. Plot is a small piece of land while plat is a plan of a piece of land. (Merriam
and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

pore, pores and pour. Pore is to read attentively, pores is a part of the skin while pour is to
dispense from a container. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

precede and proceed. Precede is to go or come before while proceed is to go on to do
something. (Meriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

preclude. An erroneous expression is preclude the possibility of since preclude means to
render impossible.
Example:
She agreed to the review in an effort to preclude (not preclude the possibility of) a
misunderstanding. (De Vries, 497)

predominately. This term is inferior to predominantly. (Garner, 133)

preliminary to. Write before. (Garner, 133)

preparatory to. A legalism for to prepare for. (Garner, 133)

preview and purview. Preview is an advance view while purview is part or scope of a
statute. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 232)

previous to. Write before. (garner, 133)

prioritize. Unmitigated jargon. Do not prioritize; set or make priorities.
(Garner, 134)

prior to. Write before. (Garner 134; Cf. Shaw, 141)
proceeds. Refers to a sum of money. Used in the plural and takes a plural verb.
Example:
The proceeds of the sale were substantial.
(De Vries, 498)

proof, evidence, testimony. Proof is evidence found to be conclusive. Evidence is any
means by which an alleged fact in issue might be stablished or disproved; thus, evidence
may include documents and tangible objects in addition to testimony, which refers only to
oral evidence given by a witness.
(Garner, 135)

proved, proven. As a past participle, proved is the better form <He had proved all the
elements of the prima facie case>. Proven is the participial adjective <the proven elements
of the claim>. It is, however, established as a past participle in the not-guilty verdict in Scots
law, “not proven.” (Garner, 135)

purposely, purposefully, purposively. What is done purposely is done on purpose.
He purposely set the building on fire.
What is done purposefully avoided the constitutional question.
The court purposively is done to serve a useful function though not as a result of
planning.
Over the years, the city purposively controlled the flow of north-south traffic. (Garner,
135)

pursuant to. Write under. (Garner, 135)

question as to whether, question of whether. Write question whether.
(Garner, 135)

raise, raze, rise. Raise means to elevate, to lift. Raze means to tear down while rise is to get
up. (Shaw, 141)

reason . . . . is because. This wording is verbose and incorrect: Because and reason each
imply the sense of the other. The best solution is usually to strike out reason and is.
Poor
The reason such matters are not material and need not be disclosed is because public
disclosure of tentative, indefinite, and contingent facts would itself be misleading.
Better
Such matters are not material and need not be disclosed because public disclosure of
tentative, indefinite, and contingent facts would itself be misleading.
If you must say with the reason . . . . is formula, follow with that rather than because.

refer back. A venial redundancy; refer alone is almost always sufficient.
(Garner, 136; Shaw, 142)
refute. This is not synonymous with deny, rebut, or contradict. It means “to disprove or
overcome conclusively.” (Garner, 136)

reglementary. So spelled. Not reglamentary. Kailanman, hindi nireregla ang batas. The
word “regla” was used to refer to some Sanish laws like “Regla 27, aryiculo 10” meaning
Rule 27, aricle 10. (See Villegas v. Roldan and Almario, 76 Phil. 351)

reluctant and reticent. If your witness is reluctant to testify, she is unwilling or will
grudgingly consent. That she is reticent, however, means she does not reveal her feelings
readily. (LeClercq, 142)

remand back. Drop the second word. (Garner, 137)
repeat again. Unless you mean “to repeat a second time” (i.e., do it a third time), this is a
redundancy. (Garner, 137)

respect. Replace the phrases with respect to and in respect of with simpler expressions, such
as single prepositions.
Poor
The issue with respect to liability is whether the defendant intended to harm the
plaintiff.
Better
The issue of liability depends on whether the defendant intended to harm the plaintiff.
Better Yet
The defendant’s liability depends on whether he intended to harm the plaintiff. (Garner,
137)

respective(ly). Often unnecessary.
Poor
Each shareholder is then to be paid his or her respective share of the dividends.
Better
Each shareholder is then to be paid his or her share of the dividends.
Never use the word respective or respectively without first determining whether the
sentence says the same thing without it.
Poor
Justice O’Connor and Justice Scalia respectively filed concurrences.
Better
Justice O’Connor and Justice Scalia [both] filed concurrences.
(Garner, 137-138)

riches. Always plural and takes a plural verb.
Example:
The riches of life are not always monetary.
(De Vries, 499)

role, rule and roll. Role is part, function, rule is to govern, and roll is to turn.
rule and hold. Rule differs from holding in that a judge rules on motions and objections to
evidence. On the other hand, though, he holds in favor of the plaintiff or defendant.
(LeClercq, 142)

said, adj. The most baneful word in legaldegook, said should always be avoided when it
would merely displace the, that, this, or any other such pointing word. Does anyone believe
that the following passage has become more precise because of the pervasiveness of said?
A considerable number of persons were attracted to said square by said meeting, and
said bombs and other fireworks which were being exploded there. A portion of the center of
the square about 40 to 60 feet was roped off by the police of said Chelsea, and said bombs or
shells were fired off within the space so enclosed, and no spectators were allowed to be
within said inclosure. The plaintiffs were lawfully in said highway at the time of the
explosion of said mortar, and near said ropes, and were in the exercise of due care.
(Garner, 138)

same. Do not use as pronoun. Legal writers are guilty of the misuse of same.
Example:
Wrong: Finding the motion to be meritorious, the same is hereby granted.
Right: The motion is granted since it is meritorious.
(Cf. De Vries, 500)
several, each and some. It is not always clear whether words like several, each and some are
singular or plural. Such words fall into three categories. Words like several, few, both and
many are always plural.
Examples:
Many of the paintings have been damaged.
Several are ruined.
Words like each, either, neither, anyone and everybody are always singular.
Examples:
Everybody is waiting.
Each of the team has arrived.
A third group of words like some, any rest, part, all and most, may be either
singular or plural, depending on the meaning of the sentence.
Example:
Some of the houses were still unpainted.
(Karls and Szymanski, 83)

shear and sheer. Shear is to cut off while sheer is very thin or transparent.

sit, set. The verb sit means to assume a sitting position or to occupy a seat. The verb set
means to place, to put something in position, to make rigid, solid or stiff.
(Time, The Grammar Guide, 109)

state and say. State is not an automatic synonym for say, but means “to express concisely
and fully.” Judges do not all have to state. Some say, observe, notice, opine. (LeClercq, 143)

struck; stricken. The preferred past participle is struck.
The objectionable remarks were struck from the record.
Stricken should be confined to the sense “afflicted with” <a community stricken with
AIDS>. Stricken is also used as an adjective:
her stricken remarks
their stricken faces
(Garner, 140)

subsequent to. Use after. (Garner, 140)
such. Properly used to mean “of this kind” <such an appeal>, such is deplorable as a
substitute for this or these or the <such appeal>. Sir Frederick Pollock tried unsuccessfully to
“choke off” this bit of legalese during the last century; may we finally succeed where he
failed. (Garner, 140; Ray and Ramsfield, 305)

tact and tack. Tact is a sense of propriety while tack is a course of action.
that. Use only one that to introduce a single clause. A common error is the use of a second
that when a phrase or clause intervenes between that and the clause it introduces.
Example:
I hope that when you have reconsidered the matter, you will cooperate (not that you will
cooperate). (De Vries, 504)

The truth is . . . The fact is . . . A bad beginning for a sentence. If you feel you are
possessed of the truth, or of the fact, simply state it. Do not give it advance billing. (Strunk
and White, 60)

track, truck and tract. Track is a path or course, truck is a motor vehicle while tract is a
stretch of land or it could also refer to a system of body organs.
try and, try to. The correct idiom is try to. However, try and is in everyday use and has been
for a century. (Shaw, 145)

trustee and trusty. Trustee is one entrusted with something while trusty is a convict allowed
special privileges. (Merriam and Webster’s Concise Handbook for Writers, 233)

unbeknown(st). Unbeknown is the better form. (Garner, 143)
unique. Reserve this word for what is one of a kind. The loose usage is to write unique when
you mean merely interesting or unusual or novel. You should not say “most unique,” “more
unique” or “very unique.” Reason: Unique is not comparable. It means the only one of its
kind. (Garner, 143; De Vries, 505)

unpractical, impractical, impracticable. The first two of these terms are interchangeable,
although impractical is considered by some writers as being more formal. Impracticable
means not capable of being carried out, used or managed. (Shaw, 145)

unsatisfied, dissatisfied. Unsatisfied means not content and wanting more. Dissatisfied
means unhappy. (De Vries, 505)

used to, used to could. In the phrase used to, the d is often elided in speaking so that it
sounds like use to. In writing, the d must be included. Used to could is an illiteracy; write
used to be able. (Shaw, 145)
utterly. Omit this word because it weakens the statement rather than strengthening it. Just
simply say: “The plaintiff’s statement is false.”

vacate, vacation. As used in law, vacate means to annul or to make void. Vacation is away
from work for leisure. However, sometimes, “vacation” can be used in a sentence in law.
Example:
The respondent, National Labor Union prays for the vacation of the judgment. (Ang
Tibay v. CIR, 62 Phil. 635)
viable, workable. The word originally meant “capable of living; able to maintain a separate
existence” <a viable fetus> and objects or concepts. Workable means practicable, capable of
working or succeeding.
Example:
The doctrine cannot breath life into a lawsuit that is not otherwise viable.
Avoid using the word as synonym for feasible or practicable.
(Garner, 144; Cf. De Vries, 507)

viz. use namely. (Garner, 144)
waive and wave. Waive is to give up voluntarily while wave is to motion with the hands.

whereas. This word, used again and again in the recitals of a contract, is the archetypal
legalism. Banish it from contracts: Use straightforward, complete sentences instead. In its
literary sense, as a near-synonym of although, or but by contrast, the word is entirely
acceptable. (Garner, 144)

whether [or not]. Usually, whether suffices without or not. (Garner, 144)
while. The word may be used for although or whereas, despite what purists contend about its
inherent temporality. While is, however, the more relaxed and conversational term. (Garner,
144)
who and which. If your antecedent is inanimate (nonhuman), use that or which as a pronoun.
If the antecedent is a person, use who. The question becomes more complicated when you
are referring to the agency (client group) as a whole, use which; if the people within the
agency are the center of your sentence or its intent, use who and whom. (LeClercq, 144)

-wise. Make it one of your basic tenets not to use this suffix, with or without hyphens, in
newfangled combinations such as taxwise, costwise, liability-wise. Established words such
as clockwise, lengthwise, and likewise are perfectly acceptable. (Garner, 145; Cf. Shaw, 146)

withal. Now a useless archaism. (Garner, 146)

you know. This is a tiresomely overused expression, a conversational filler that really adds
nothing to most statements. It is sometimes referred to as “nothing words.”
(Shaw, 147; Cf. Larry King, How to Talk to Anyone, anytime, Anywhere, 96)

437

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I.

The Parts of a Sentence

1. The subject, which is a 2. The predicate which is a group of

✘The lawyer had objected to the evidence.

✘Getting a law degree can be a difficult process.

Subjects are nouns, pronouns, or phrases used as nouns. Predicates are

Wrong: The show is over. We should go to your house now.

(b) History is a systematic record of past events.

Wrong: We discussed the story of the Mangyans of Mindoro.

(b) Reason is that which explains or justifies a result.

Wrong: They had some strangers in the party last night.

Wrong: When I entered the room, I saw the victim lying on

“Place” cannot be used in the sense of “room,” which means here

Wrong: Is there place for Carol in the car?

Even in speaking, it is possible to say, “It’s I” without being considered

(3) In apposition with the subject of a verb.

(3) in apposition with the object of a verb

(8) Notice that when a pronoun follows as or than, it takes the

Compound personal pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,

Examples: the subject (reflective use). This occurs

Compound personal pronouns should not be used as substitutes for

A relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a

A relative pronoun has the following functions in its own clause:

The Green Foundation will help whoever needs help.

In the objective case:

(2) as object of a preposition

Lawrence nominated Pastor Mike Velarde, for whom

(3) as subject of an infinitive

Marcelle asked her to play the organ.

Interrogative pronouns (who, which, what) are used in asking questions.

Note: the possessive whose does not have an apostrophe. It should be

The following are suggestions for the use of these words:

4. When else is added to a compound indefinite, the possessive is formed by adding an

Write the compounds as two words if a prepositional phrase follows:

1. nominative (subjective) – when it indicates the person or thing

3. objective (accusative) – when it indicates the person or thing acted upon.

(2) Singular subjects connected by or or nor take a singular verb.

(3) when two subjects differing in number are connected by either-or or

Correct: Neither the candidate nor the voters are satisfied

Such nouns may be regarded as singular or plural. Singular, if the word

The Proctor and Gamble company has scheduled the l argest

The number of students in Public Corporations has increased this year.

A couple of suggestions were offered by the group.

The couple was recognized boarding a train.

Active voice: Bobby has cleaned his gun.

The verb in the passive voice consists of a form of to be combined with

2. Say and Tell

Right: She told me that she is going to attend the

5. Sit and Seat

6. Rise and Raise

7. Like and Love

9.2 In all other cases, the form is “hung.”

11. Tear and Tear up

11.2 “Tear up” means to destroy by tearing to pieces.

16. Convince and Persuade

Right: The investigating committee is fully convinced of his

16.2 To persuade” means to get a person to do something.

18.2 “To take part” means to have a share in a thing.

Our guests are offered complimentary drinks on their arrival.

The wind whistled among the bare branches of the trees.

Tomorrow we can sleep like a dog.

A tense can be used to interpret the meaning of a law. (Abbot Laboratories v.

4. The Subjunctive Mood