Series

Geometric Series
Binomial Coefficients
Harmonic Series
 Sum of a Geometric Series
1 1
• What is 1+ + 2 +…?
2 2

• Method 1: Prove by induction that for every

n≥0,
1 1 1 1
1+ + 2 +… + n =2 − n
2 2 2 2
• And then make some argument about the limit
as n →∞ to conclude that the sum is 2.
 Sum of a Geometric Series
1
• Another way. Recall that =1+ x + x2 +…
1−x

and plug in x = ½ !

These “formal power series” have many uses.

 Another example
1 1 1
• What is X = 1+ 2 + 4 + 6 +L ?
2 2 2
1
• Since =1+ x + x2 +…
1−x
1
=1+ x 2
+ x4
+…,
1−x 2

1 4
So X = 2 = .
⎛1⎞ 3
1−⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
 Another Example
2 3 4
• What is S = 1+ + 2 + 3 +L ?
3 3 3
• Generalize. Note that S=F(1/3) where
F(x) = 1+ 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +L
 Manipulating Power Series
Since F(x) = 1+ 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +L ,
1
F (x)− = 1+ 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +L
1−x
−(1+ x + x2 + x3 +L )
= x + 2x2 + 3x3 +L
= xF (x).So
1 1
F (x)(1−x)= and therefore F (x)=
1−x (1−x)2
⎛ 1⎞ 1 9
Then F ⎜ ⎟ = 2 = .
⎝ 3⎠ ⎛ 2⎞ 4
⎜
⎝ 3⎟
⎠
 Another Approach
F(x) = 1+ 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +L

1
= 1+ x + x2 +…
1−x
• But then
d 1 d
= (1+ x + x2 +…)
dx 1−x dx
= 1+ 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +L
d 1 1
So F (x)= = .
dx 1−x (1−x) 2
 Identities involving “Choose”
n
⎛ n ⎞
• What is ∑⎜⎝ i ⎟⎠ ?
i=0

• “Set Theory” derivation

– Let S be a set of size n
– This is the sum of the number of 0 element
subsets, plus the number of 1-element subsets, plus
…, plus the number of n-element subsets
– Total 2n
 Binomial Theorem

n
n
⎛ n ⎞ i n−i
(x + y) = ∑⎜ ⎟ ⋅x y
i=0 ⎝ i ⎠

because if you multiply out

(x+y)(x+y)(x+y)…(x+y)
the coefficient of xiyn-i is the number of different
ways of choosing x from i factors and y from
n-i factors
 Using the Binomial Theorem

n
⎛ n ⎞ i n−i
n
Since (x + y) = ∑⎜ ⎟ ⋅x y
i=0 ⎝ i ⎠

substituting x=y=1 yields

n n
⎛ n
n
⎞ i n−i
n
⎛ n ⎞
(1+1) =2 =∑⎜ ⎟ ⋅1 1 =∑⎜ ⎟
i=0 ⎝ i ⎠ i=0 ⎝ i ⎠
 Using the Binomial Theorem
What is n
⎛ n ⎞
∑2 ⋅⎜⎝ i ⎟⎠ ?
i

i=0

Try to make this look like the binomial thm

n
⎛ n ⎞ n
⎛ n ⎞ i n−i n n
2 i
=
∑ ⎜⎝ i ⎟⎠ ∑⎜⎝ i ⎟⎠
⋅ ⋅2 1
⋅ = (2+1) = 3
i=0 i=0
 Stacking books

Can you stack identical books so the top one is

completely off the table?

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 Stacking books

• Can you stack identical books so the top one is

completely off the table?
• One book: balance at middle

1 1

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 Stacking books

• Two books: balance top one at the middle, the

second over the table edge at the center of
gravity of the pair

1
1
1
½

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Stacking books
 Three books: balance top one at the middle, the
second over the third at ½, and the trio over the
table edge at the center of gravity

1
½

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Stacking books
 Three books: balance top one at the middle, the
second over the third at ½, and the trio over the table
edge at the center of gravity = (1+2+2½)/3 = 1⅚
from right end

1⅚

1
½

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 Stacking books
 Three books: balance top one at the middle, the second
over the third at ½, and the trio over the table edge at the
center of gravity = (1+2+2½)/3 = 1⅚ from right end

1⅚

1
½
⅓
See a pattern?

04/30/2021
 The Harmonic Series Diverges
n
1
• Let Hn = ∑ . Then for any n,
i=0 i
n
H 2n ≥ +1.
2
• Doubling the number of terms adds at least ½
to the sum
• Corollary. The series diverges, that is,
For every m > 0,there isan n such thatH n > m .

04/30/2021
 Proof by WOP that the Harmonic Series
Diverges
n
Let P(n) ≡ H 2n ≥ +1 and letC = {n :P (n)isfalse}.
2
Suppose C is nonempty. Let m be the minimal element of C.
0 m
0 ∉C since H 20 = 1≥ +1. So m ≥1 and H m < +1.
2 2

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 The Harmonic Series Diverges
2m
1 m −1 1
But then H 2m−1 = H 2m − ∑ (a sum of2 term s,each ≥ m )
i=2m −1+1 i 2
m −1 1
≤H 2m −2
2m
1
= H 2m −
2
m 1
< +1− by hypothsisaboutH m
2 2
m −1
= +1 so H m w asnotm inim al.
2

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 So with a stack of 31 books
you get 2 book lengths off the table!

And there is no limit to how far the stack can

extend!

http://mathforum.org/advanced/robertd/harmonic.html

04/30/2021
FINIS