BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2

HIGHWAY MATERIALS

2.1 Properties and Testing of Soil, Aggregates,

Lime, Portland Cement and Bituminous Materials

2.2 Soil stabilisation

2.3 Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete Mixture Design

 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

UNBOUND MATERIAL
The unbound pavement courses are listed as follows:
(A) BASE COURSE
(B) SUB-BASE COURSE

 In the road construction, one or more layers of material paced

immediately above the sub-grade or capping.
 Together with the capping, the unbound pavement course
comprises the road foundation, ensuring that the courses above are
adequately supported so that their full potential is achieved.
 Unbound pavement courses are extraordinarily strong when
properly compacted and confined.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

BASE COURSE

1) Base course in flexible pavements must help to distribute the load.

2) This ability of material in the base course also affects the rate of load distribution to
a certain extent, but depth is the main factor considered in design.
3) While distributing the load, the base course itself must not be a cause of failure.
4) Therefore, it must be strong enough to carry the load without shear failure and
resultant rutting.
5) In order to ensure that its strength is maintained, the base course must allow water
drainages to the sides of the pavement structure.
6) If the base becomes saturated, high stresses may be created in the water
occupying the pore spaces, resulting in less frictional strength between particles.
7) The materials must be durable, that is, resistant to degradation or breakdown to
smaller sizes from wear and weathering.
8) The base course must also prevent infiltration of sub-grade material.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

BASE COURSE CONT…..

 The base course lies immediately above the sub-base.
 If a sub-base course is not used, the base is placed immediately above
the sub-grade.
 This course usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone,
crushed or uncrushed slag, crush or uncrushed gravel and sand, which is
hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and other deleterious
materials.
 The specifications for base course materials usually include stricter
requirements than those for sub-base materials, particularly with respect
to their plasticity, gradation and strength.
 Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base
materials if they are properly stabilized with Portland cement, asphalt or
lime.
 In some cases, high-quality base course materials may also be treated
with asphalt or Portland cement to improve the stiffness characteristics of
heavy-duty pavements.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Testing of aggregate for base course

 The materials used to construct this layer are consists of the
mixing of crushed aggregates with the size from 50 mm to
dust. All road base materials shall fulfill the testing listed
below:

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

 Plasticity Index (PI)

 Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)

 Flakiness Index (FI)

 Soundness

 Sieve
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Material Requirements for base course

 Shall hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and
other deleterious materials.
 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.2 (BS 1377).
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) shall be ≥ 80 % when compacted
to 95 % of the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) according to
Compaction Test (4.5 kg rammer method) and soaked for 4 days
under 4.5 kg surcharge (BS 1377)
 Aggregate Crushing Value ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Flakiness Index ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No. 4
(4.75 mm) ≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).
 Average loss of weight in the magnesium sulfate
(Soundness) for 5 cycles ≤ 18 % (AASHTO T 104)
 The Plasticity Index ≤ 6 (BS 1377).
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Material Requirements for base course (Cont)

Table 2.2: Gradation limit for Crushed Aggregate Road base
BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight
50.0 100
37.5 85 – 100
28.0 70 – 100
20.0 60 – 90
10.0 40 – 65
5.0 30 – 55
2.0 20 - 40
0.425 10 – 25
0.075 2 - 10
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and
sieving method of BS 1377
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Construction Requirements for roadbase

 Sub-base must be ready accordingly.

 Lay the road base. Not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness.
 If more than 1 layers, each layer must be approximately equal. None
shall be less than 100 mm compacted thickness.
 Compaction – density ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry Density (MDD). The
density should be determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg rammer method)
according to BS 1377: Test 13.
 Complete compaction – protect well the road base surface before
placing bituminous surface.
 Tolerance of the top surface is + 0 mm to – 20 mm.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

WET MIX ROADBASE

 Shall hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and other
deleterious materials.
 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.3 (BS 1377).
 Aggregate Crushing Value ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Flakiness Index ≤ 25 % (MS 30)
 Average loss of weight in the magnesium sulfate (Soundness) for 5
cycles ≤ 18 % (AASHTO T 104)
The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Gradation for Wet Mix Road Base (Cont)

Table 2.3: Gradation limit for Wet-Mix Road base

BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight

50.0 100
37.5 95 – 100
20.0 60 – 80
10.0 40 – 60
5.0 25 – 40
2.36 15 - 30
0.060 8 – 22
0.075 0-8
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS
1377
Construction Requirements for Wet Mix Roadbase
 Sub-base must be ready accordingly.
 Lay the road base. Not exceeding 200 mm compacted
thickness.
 If more than 1 layers required, each layer must be
approximately equal thickness. None shall be less than 100 mm
compacted thickness.
 Compaction – density ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry Density (MDD).
The density should be determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg
rammer method) according to BS 1377: Test 13.
 Minimum thickness measured at any pint shall be not less 20
mm of the specified thickness.
 Complete compaction – protect well the road base surface
before placing bituminous surface.
 Tolerance of the top surface is + 0 mm to – 20 mm.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

SUB-BASE COURSE
 Sub-base for flexible pavement must drain readily.

 Strength is not as important, however, since the course is lower in the

pavement structure and therefore is subjected to the much smaller loads.

 Located immediately above the sub-grade, the sub-base component consists

of material of a superior quality to which is generally used for sub-grade
construction.

 The requirements for sub-base materials are usually given in terms of the
gradation, plastic characteristics and strength.

 The functions of sub-base are:

- To sustain road base layer and distribute load from the vehicle
- Act as a drainage layer ( if the materials used capable to drain the
water)
- Can be used as a temporary road during the construction
- To protect the sub-grade from the failure due to the climatic effect.
- As a barrier layer to avoid the mixing of sub-grade and road base
materials.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Materials Requirements for Subbase

 Gradation (size) shall follow Table 2.1 (BS 1377).

 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) shall be ≥ 30 % or as shown on the
drawing when compacted to 95 % of the Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
 Maximum dry density (MDD) been determined based on Compaction
Test (4.5 kg rammer method) and soaked for 4 days under 4.5 kg surcharge
(BS 1377)
 Therefore, a series of CBR test at various densities using the field
moisture content.
 If > 10 % of material has size more than 20 mm, the whole material can
be assumed without test to have CBR value of 30 % or more.
 Plasticity Index (PI) ≤ 12 (BS 1377).
 The 10 % Fines Value ≥ 30 kN (MS 30).
 The Sand Equivalent of aggregate fraction passing the No. 4 (4.75 mm)
≥ 45 % (ASTM D 2419).
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Materials Requirements for subbase (Cont)

Table 2.1: Gradation limit for Sub-base

BS Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing by Weight

75.0 100
37.5 85 – 100
20.0 65 – 100
10.0 45 – 100
5.0 25 – 85
0.600 8 – 45
0.075 0 - 10
The particle size shall be determined by the washing and sieving
method of BS 1377
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Construction Requirements for subbase

 Sub-grade must be ready accordingly.

 Lay the sub-base. Not exceeding 200 mm compacted thickness.
 If more than 1 layers, each layer must be approximately equal.
None shall be less than 100 mm compacted thickness.
 Compaction - ≥ 95 % of Maximum Dry Density (MDD). The
density should be determined by Compaction Test (4.5 kg rammer
method) according to BS 1377.
 Tolerance of the top surface is + 10 mm to – 20 mm.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Subgrade soil
 Sub-grade is the part of embankment or natural soil under the sub-
base or lower sub-base of road and road shoulder.

 This layer is the first part of the road construction prior the other
structure.

 The surface of sub-grade is identified as a formation level.

 According to the definition, the formation level is the soil surface

after the earthwork, consolidation, compaction and stabilization
works were completed.

 Sub-grade is used as a layer which sustain load from the top

surfaces.

 Selection of suitable soils to be used as the foundation for the

highway pavement surface is of primary importance in the design
and construction of any highway.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Subgrade soil
 Selection of suitable soils to be used as the foundation for the highway
pavement surface is of primary importance in the design and construction of
any highway.

 The good sub-grade should have the properties as follows:

 Should be stable under the varieties of vehicle load and climatic condition.
 The strength of the sub-grade should remain along the design period.
 The ability to drain water.

 There are some soils which are identified as unsuitable materials for the sub-
grade and road embankment. These materials are not capable to sustain load
from the above layer and traffic. These soils are listed as follows:

 Soils which consists of organic clays or silts.

 The value of Liquid Limits (LL) > 80 % or Plasticity Index (PI) > 55 %
 The value of Loss On Ignition (LOI) > 2.5 %
 Soils consist of roots, grass or other plants, toxic, peat or mud.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Subgrade soil
 Material for the top 300 mm of sub-grade shall have a minimum
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) as required in the specification when compacted
to 95% of the maximum dry density determined in the B.S 1377 Compaction
Test.

 Throughout the top 300 mm of sub-grade, the material shall be compacted to not
less than 95% (for cohesive material exp. clayey soil) or 100% (for cohesionless
material exp. Sandy soil) of the maximum dry density.

 In cut area, the top 300 mm of the sub-grade shall be scarified and recompacted
to 95% (for cohesive material) or 100% (for cohesionless material) of the
maximum dry density.

 However, for the sub-grade in its natural state possesses a density exceeding
the requirements, then the surface of the sub-grade shall be trimmed and rolled
to obtain smooth finish.

 If the material in cut area is found to be unsuitable for use in the top 300 mm of
sub-grade, it shall be removed and replaced with suitable material which shall be
compacted as indicated above.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Testing for Soil :

CBR AND COMPACTION TEST
COMPACTION TEST
Dry density is carried out on
subgrade soils and
roadbase aggregates to
Max. dry
density
determine the optimum
water content and
maximum dry density –
for the purpose of
adequate compaction at
the site.

Water
Optimum content
water content 19
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

CBR AND COMPACTION TEST

 Compaction will result in:
higher strength, reduced settlement and
reduced permeability.
Dry density  The effect of compaction energy is shown below:

50 blows

20 blows

Water
content
20
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

CBR TEST

 CBR Test is carried out to determine the resistance of the

subgrade/crushed aggregates to deformation under the load
from vehicle wheels.

 The stronger the material (the higher the CBR reading ) the
less thick it is necessary to design and construct the road
pavement, this gives a considerable cost saving.

 Conversely if CBR testing indicates the material is weak (a

low CBR reading) we must construct a suitable thicker road
pavement to spread the wheel load over a greater area of the
weak material.

 Alternatively, material improvements such as chemical

stabilization (use of lime, cement and fly ash) may also be
conducted.

21
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Load (kN)
CBR TEST
z

2.5 mm 5.0 mm Penetration

(mm)

@ 2.5 mm  CBR = y  100%

13.2 Choose the higher value as
the CBR for the material.
@ 5.0 mm  CBR = z  100%
20.0
22
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

RESULT OF COMPACTION TEST RESULT OF CBR TEST

Dry density, d Dry density, d

From different blow

d max x
x d max
d max x x x
x
x
x

Water content CBR CBR (%)

23
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Materials Requirements for subbase

The factors which influence to the strength of the sub-grade are listed as follows:

Types of soils – The most suitable soil are granular soil and the most unsuitable
material for the sub-grade is the peat soils.

Water content – the suitable moisture content of soil is determined through the
laboratory compaction test.

The method and compaction effort – the strength of soil also depends on these
factors and at site the type of plant used for the compaction and the number of
repetition of compaction also been considered.

Therefore, testing need to be conducted to the soil to determine the suitability of

soils as a sub-grade. The tests which are usually conducted to the soils for
sub-grade and road embankment are listed as follows:

• Loss On Ignition (LOI) – BS 1377: Part 3: 1990

• Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) – BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
• Compaction – BS 1377: Test 13: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR) – BS 1377: Test 16: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Bound Material : Road Surface

 Bituminous pavement course is the combination of
aggregates and binder.
 The surface layer consists of two layers which known as
the binder course and the wearing course.
 The surface course usually consists of a mixture of
mineral aggregates and asphaltic materials.
 It should be capable of withstanding high tyre pressure,
resisting the abrasive force due to traffic, providing a
skid-resistance driving surface and preventing the
penetration of surface water depending on the expected
traffic on the pavement.
 Its quality depends on the mix design of the asphalt
concrete used.
 The materials used to construct this layer are
aggregates, bitumen and filler.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Asphaltic Concrete for road surface

In general, the asphaltic concrete materials are considered as

follows:

Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and

distribute to the layer beneath.

Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

strong and stable mixture.

Filler – to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of
the bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding
in bituminous mixture.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Binder Course
This layer is used to distribute load to the road base and provide the flat
surface to construct the wearing course. The maximum size of aggregate
used is 28 mm and mixed with percentage of bitumen ranging from 4 – 6
%.
Wearing Course
 Basically, this is the top layer with the main function to the safety of the
road users. The other functions of wearing course are listed as
follows:
• Provide skid resistance
• Protect the road surface
• Provide a safe and comfortable riding surface
• Sustain abrasion from traffic
• As a drainage system by providing a waterproof layer, and drain
surface run-off to the side drain.

 The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm and mixed with bitumen with

the percentage ranging from 4.5 – 7 %.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Bitumen
 The term of bitumen refers to the binder material, which produces from
refinery of crude oil.
 The mixture of bitumen and aggregate is called asphaltic concrete.
 The chemical compositions of bitumen are listed as shown in Table.

Minerals Percentage Content (%)

Carbon 80 – 85
Hydrogen 10
Sulfur 1–5
Nitrogen 1
Oxygen <1
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Bitumen
Bitumen can be obtained from two main sources which are:

Natural sources – bitumen which is located in geological stratum and can

be obtained in the hard and soft form.

Petroleum bitumen – bitumen in colloidal form obtained from refinery

process of crude oil and has been widely used in the road construction.

Bitumen can be classified into four types as listed as follows:

• Penetration bitumen
• Cutback bitumen
• Emulsified bitumen
• Blown bitumen
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Type of bitumen
1. Penetration Bitumen
 The grade of penetration bitumen classified according to the penetration
test ranging from 40 – 300 while based on the viscosity test ranging from 5
– 40.

2. Cutback Bitumen
 Cutback bitumen is produced based on the bitumen with the percentage
ranging from 50 – 80 % mixed with the petroleum-based solvents. When it
is mixed with aggregate, the petroleum will evaporate and it allows for the
bitumen to interlock with the aggregate.

 According to the rate of evaporation, this kind of bitumen can be

classified into three groups:

 Rapid Curing (RC)

 Medium Curing (MC)
 Slow Curing (SC)
 BFC
BFC
BFC 31802
31802
BFC31802 HIGHWAY
HIGHWAY
31802HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING
HIGHWAYENGINEERING
ENGINEERING

2. Cont……Cutback Bitumen

 Rapid Curing (RC)

- It has been used for the tack coat and surface treatment.
- Produced by mixing the bitumen with petrol.

 Medium Curing (MC)

- Produced by mixing the bitumen with kerosene.
- It has been used for the prime coat and cold mix for the patching
work.
 Slow Curing
- Produced by mixing the bitumen with the diesel.
- It has been used especially for the prime coat, cold mix for patching
work and dust control.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3. Emulsified Bitumen
 Emulsified bitumen is produced by mixing the bitumen (55 – 65 %) with
water and emulsifier in the colloidal rotor.

 This situation will reduce the viscosity of bitumen and allow them to be
used at the low temperature.

 The type of bitumen depends to the emulsifying agent that is used. The
two types of are as follows:

Anionic
• Contains the negative bitumen globule.
• This bitumen is produced when positive emulsifying agent is used - alkali.

• It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have positive charge

like limestone.

Cationic
• Contains the positive bitumen globule.
• This bitumen is produced when negative emulsifying agent is used –
acid.
• It is suitable to be used with the aggregates which have negative charge
like sand, quartz and silica.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3. cont….Emulsified Bitumen

• Emulsified bitumen can be classified into three groups:

• Rapid Setting (RS)

• Used for surface treatment and tack coat.

• Medium Setting (MS)

• Used for Macadam penetration and open graded cold mix.

• Slow Setting (SS)

• Used for tack coat, dense grade cold mix, crack patching and
slurry mixture.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3. cont….Emulsified Bitumen

• Nowadays, the emulsified bitumen is most widely used compared to

cutback bitumen due to the several factors as follows:

• Environmental regulation – emulsified bitumen contains water

while cutback bitumen contains materials which can evaporate and
pollute the air when it has been used.

• The wastage of petroleum – cutback bitumen uses petroleum

solvents.

• Safety – emulsified bitumen is safer to be used.

• Low temperature of mixing – this situation can reduce the cost of

fuel consumption. Besides that, emulsified bitumen can be used on
damp surfaces while cutback bitumen needs dry condition.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

4. Blown Bitumen

•Produced by heating the bitumen at high temperature and air is

allowed through the bitumen and it makes the bitumen become
harder.

•Basically, this type of bitumen is used for building materials

especially for roofs.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Laboratory Testing on bitumen

In order to ensure the bitumen that be used fulfill the specification,

series of testing can be conducted as follows:

 Penetration
 Softening Point
 Ductility
 Flash and Fire Point
 Viscosity
 Loss on Heating
 Thin Film Oven Test
 Specific Gravity
 Solubility
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Test bitumen according to ms 124 specification for

penetration grade 80-100
Properties Methods Requirements
Penetration at 25oC, 100g
MS 541 80-100
5 sec, 0.1 mm
Softening Point in oC MS 687 45-52
Flash Point in oC
ASTM D92 Min. 225°C
(cleveland open cup)
Solubility in trichloroethylene % wt ASTM D2042 Min. 99.0
Ductility at 25°C 5 cm per min, cm ASTMD113 Min. 100
Retained penetration after thin-film oven test,
ASTMD5 Min 47
%
Loss on heating, % wt ASTM D6 Max. 0.5

Drop in penetration after heating, % ASTMD5 Max. 20

 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Asphaltic concrete
 Bituminous pavement course is the combination of aggregates and
binder.

 The surface layer consists of two layers which known as the binder
course and the wearing course.

 The surface course usually consists of a mixture of mineral

aggregates and asphaltic materials.

 It should be capable of withstanding high tyre pressure, resisting the

abrasive force due to traffic, providing a skid-resistance driving
surface and preventing the penetration of surface water depending
on the expected traffic on the pavement.

 Its quality depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used.

 The materials used to construct this layer are aggregates, bitumen

and filler.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Asphaltic concrete
 In general, the asphaltic concrete materials are considered as
follows:

 Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and

distribute to the layer beneath.

 Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

strong and stable mixture.

 Filler – to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of
the bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding in
bituminous mixture.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Aggregates for Asphaltic concrete

 Most of the aggregates used in the road construction were the
natural aggregates. However, there was also widely used the
artificial aggregates such as the waste material from the
process of tin ore.

 In road construction, the aggregates can be classified into

three groups according to the size as follows:

 Coarse aggregates – retained on the sieve 2.36 mm.

 Fine aggregates – passing sieve 2.36 mm and retained at 75

m sieve size.

 Filler – the dust passing sieve size 75 m (eg. quarry dust and
Portland cement).
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Aggregates for Asphaltic concrete

Coarse aggregates shall be screened crushed hard rock, angular in
shape and free from dust, clay, vegetative and other organic matter
and other deleterious substances.

In order to ensure the properties of Coarse aggregate fulfill the

requirement of bituminous mixture, they need to satisfy the following
physical and mechanical quality requirements:

 The Los Angeles abrasion value whentested in accordance with

ASTM C 131 is shall be not more than 25%.

 The weighted average loss of weight in the sodium sulphates

soundness test (5 cycles) shall be not more than 18%.

 The flakiness index shall be not more than 25

 The water absorption shall be not more than 2%.

 The polished stone value shall be not less than 40 (only

applicable to aggregates for wearing course)
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Aggregates for Asphaltic concrete

 Fine aggregates shall be clean natural sands, screened

quarry fines or mining sand. Mining sand shall be
thoroughly washed before use.

 Other types of fine aggregate may be used depends on the

decision of the engineer. Fine aggregates shall be non-
plastic and free from clay, loam, aggregations of
material, vegetative and other organic matter and other
deleterious substances.

 Notwithstanding compliance with the requirements,

limestone aggregates shall not be permitted for use in
wearing course.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Aggregates for Asphaltic concrete

 They shall comform to the following physical and

mechanical quality requirement:

 The sand equivalent of aggregate fraction passing

the size 4.75mm not less than 45%
 Fine aggregate angularity not less than 45%
 The weight average loss of weight in the magnesium
sulphate soundness test (5 cycle) not more than 20%
 The water absorption when tested accordance to MS30
shall be not more than 2%
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Mix Design
• Proposed by contractor as required in the Works.
• Follow design mix aggregate gradation and appropriate
range of bitumen content.
• Shall be subject to the Marshall test Procedure and
volumetric analysis.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

(4) VTM, VMA and VFB?

Voids in Total Mix (Air Voids)
The total volume of the small Absorbed Water permeable porosity
pockets of air between the coated asphalt not filled with absorbed
asphalt
aggregate particles throughout a Aggregat
e
compacted paving mixture.
Aggregate
volume (bulk RD)
Must be kept between 3% - 5%.
Effective
Air Void
Low air voids content will cause the asphalt Aggregate
binder
mixture to be unstable. volume
(effective RD)
Volume
High air voids content will result in a of water Aggregate
water-permeable mixture. permeabl volume
e porosity (effective RD)

Voids in Mineral Aggregate

The volume of intergranular void space between the aggregate particles of a compacted paving mixture
that includes the air voids and the effective asphalt content.

When VMA is too low, there is not enough room to add sufficient asphalt to adequately coat the
aggregates.

Excessive VMA will reduce the stability of the mixture.

45
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Voids in aggregate
Filled with Bitumen Absorbed Water permeable porosity
asphalt not filled with absorbed
The portion of the voids in the Aggregat
asphalt
mineral aggregate that contain e
asphalt binder. 
Aggregate volume
(bulk RD)
This represents the volume of
the effective asphalt content. Effective
Air Void
asphalt
Aggregate
binder
It can also be described as the volume
(effective RD)
percent of the volume of the
Volume of
VMA that is filled with asphalt water Aggregate
cement.  permeable volume
porosity (effective RD)
VFB is inversely related to air
voids: as air voids decrease, the
VFB increases. 

46
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Mass/volume relationship in asphalt mixes (after Atkins, 2003)

M Total mass (= MG +MB)
MG Mass of aggregate
VA MB Mass of asphalt (binder) (= MBE + MBA)
MBE Mass of effective asphalt, the asphalt
binder between particles
MBA Mass of absorbed, absorbed into the
M VB pores of the aggregate particles
M VB V Total volume of the compacted mix
BE E

VG Volume of aggregate, the bulk volume

B
M V

MB VB
including the aggregate pores
VM VBE Volume of effective asphalt
A A
M
VBA Volume of absorbed asphalt
VB Volume of asphalt (= VBE + VBA)
VG
VG VA Volume of air between the coated
E aggregate particles in the mix
VGE Effective volume of aggregate (= VG –
VBA)
Air VMM Volume voidless mix (minimum mix
(A) volume)
Asphalt
binder (B)
Aggregate
(G)

47
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Mass or volume relationships of the compacted specimen is shown in

Figure 2-4 and these relationships can be expressed using the following
equations.

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Table 3: Gradation Limit for Asphalt Concrete

Mix Type Wearing Course Binder Course
Mix Designation AC 10 AC 14 AC 28
B.S. Sieve Size (mm) % Passing By Weight
28.0 - - 100
20.0 - 100 72– 90
14.0 100 90– 100 58 – 76
10.0 90 –100 76 – 86 48 – 64
5.0 58 – 72 50 – 62 30 – 46
3.35 48 – 64 40 – 54 24 – 40
1.18 22 – 40 18 – 34 14 – 28
425 µm 12 – 26 12 – 24 8 – 20
150 µm 6 – 14 6 – 14 4 – 10
75 µm 4–8 4–8 3–7

Conventional bitumen content ranges used for mix design

Binder Course AC 10 5 – 7%
AC 14 4 – 6%
AC 28 3.5 – 5.5%

** Mineral Filler : Hydrated lime or portland cement (PCC)

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MARSHALL MIX DESIGN

 The most used method for the mixture design is the Marshall Method
(ASTM D 1559).
 The objective of the Marshall design is to determine the mixing ratio of
aggregates and optimum bitumen content to produce the durable, stable
and adequate of voids, workable, flexible, economy and quality.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Marshall Mix Design

BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

MARSHALL MIX DESIGN

 The most common method used to determine the optimum bitumen content
is the method proposed by the Asphalt Institute.

 The procedure of this method is given as follows:

a. Determine
- Bitumen content for the maximum stability
- Bitumen content for the flow equal to 3mm
- Bitumen content for the maximum density/ bulk specific gravity
- Bitumen content at VFB equal to 75% for wearing course & 70% f
for binder course
- Bitumen content at VIM equal to 4.0% for wearing course & 5.0%
for binder course.
 BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

b. Calculate the mean value from these 5 values

c. Based on this mean value, determine the values from the
Marshall properties curve as listed below (Figure 2-2).

• Stability (S)
• Flow (F)
• Stiffness (S/F)
• Void in Total Mix (VTM) or Air voids in
mix (VIM)
• Void Filled with Bitumen (VFB) or Void
Filled
with asphalt (VFA)

Compare the values obtain from (c) with the specification

values (Table 2-6).

If it fulfills the specification, the bitumen can be considered

as the optimum bitumen content.

If it does not fulfill the requirement, the mixture needs to be

redesigned.
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Table 2-6: Test and Analysis Parameters for Asphaltic Concrete

Parameter Wearing Course Binder Course
Stability, S >8000 N > 8000 N

Flow , F 2.0-4.0 mm 2.0 – 4.0 mm

Stiffness , S/F > 2000 N/mm > 2000 N/mm

Air voids in mix (VIM) 3.0 - 5.0 % 3.0 - 7.0%

Voids in aggregates filled with 70 - 80 % 65 - 75%

bitumen (VFB)
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MARSHALL MIX DESIGN EXAMPLE

Density Stability Flow Stiffness VIM VFB
% AC (kg/mm) (kg) (mm) (kg/mm) (%) (%)
4.0 2.259 1339.2 2.62 511.8 6.49 57.96
4.5 2.270 1469.3 2.79 526.0 5.33 65.50
5.0 2.289 1551.0 3.19 486.2 3.86 74.59
5.5 2.272 1321.3 3.25 407.0 3.89 76.06
6.0 2.260 1196.7 3.70 323.1 3.70 78.40
3.80 550.0
3.60 500.0
3.40
450.0
3.20

Stiffness
3.00 400.0
Flow

2.80 350.0
2.60
300.0
2.40
2.20 250.0
2.00 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
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2.295 1600.0
2.290
1500.0
2.285
1400.0
2.280

Stability
Density

2.275 1300.0
2.270
1200.0
2.265
1100.0
2.260
2.255 1000.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

7.00 80.00
6.50
75.00
6.00
70.00
5.50

VFA
VTM

5.00 65.00
4.50
60.00
4.00
55.00
3.50
3.00 50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
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Average = (4.85+ 4.85 + 5.00 +5.2+ 5.1) / 5 = 5%

1600.0 550.0

1500.0 500.0

450.0
1400.0

Stiffness
Stability

400.0
1300.0
350.0
1200.0
300.0
1100.0 250.0
1000.0 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

3.80 7.00
3.60 6.50
3.40 6.00
3.20
5.50
3.00

VTM
Flow

5.00
2.80
4.50
2.60
2.40 4.00
2.20 3.50
2.00 3.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
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80.00

75.00

70.00

VFA
65.00

60.00

55.00

50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC

Table : JKR Specification (JKR/ SPJ/2008)

Parameter Results Specification Remarks

(Wearing course, JKR 1988)
Stability 1530 kg >8000 N OK
Flow 3.10 mm 2.0-4.0 mm OK
Stiffness 4800 kg/mm > 2000 N/mm OK
VTM 4.2 % 3.0 - 5.0 % OK
VFA 74% 70 - 80 % OK

 Optimum Binder Content, OBC = 5.0%

BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

THANK YOU
Any Question?