ANTENAS

Chapter 4
Linear Wire Antennas
ECE 5318/6352
Antenna Engineering
Dr. Stuart Long
1
l  /50
INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE
l   ; thin wire ;
z
I ( z ' )  aˆ z I o [4-1] 
Impinging
Wave
(constant current)
l/2
 Io
Im  0  F  0 I
l/2
(only electrical current present )
2
INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE l  /50
(CONT)
r  x2  y2 z2
Fig. 4.1(a) Geometrical arrangement

of an infinitesimal dipole
3
(CONT)
(x,y,z)
 mixed coordinates in
expression - change to spherical
for    source
points
(x’,y’,z’)
 xx    y  y'    z  z' 

2 2 2 l
R  '
R  x2  y2 z2
 o  ' ' ' e  jkR

A (x,y,z)  c e
'
I ( x , y , z ) d  [4-2]
4 R
4
l  /50
(CONT)
 mixed coordinates in expression

change to spherical (x,y,z)
source
points
  jkr / 2
 o Io e l
(x’,y’,z’)
A(x,y,z)  aˆ z 
'
d z
4 r  / 2

  o Io   jkr
A(x,y,z)  aˆ z e
4 r [4-4]
5
l  /50
(CONT)
 mixed coordinates in expression

need to change to spherical
(x,y,z)
R  x  x 
' 2

 y y 
' 2

 zz 
' 2
d 
'
along source
c source
points
I l
(x’,y’,z’)
A   Az sin   o o e  jkr sin 
4 r
I
Ar  Az cos   o o e  jkr cos 
4 r
A  0
[4-6]
6
l  /50
(CONT)
Using Vector Potential A ,

calculate H & E fields
 1 
H    A  aˆ 

1

 
 A  
 
 1
  A    (r A ) 
r  r
Ar 
 
[4-7]
7
l  /50
(CONT)
Using Vector Potential A ,

calculate H fields
 1 
H   A

k I o  1   jkr
H  j sin  1   e [4-8]
4 r  jkr 

Hr  0
H  0
8
l  /50
(CONT)
Using Maxwell’s Eqns to

calculate E fields
 1 
E H
j
 I o  1   jkr
Er  cos  1  e
2 r 2  jkr 

 k I o  1 1   jkr
E  j sin  1   2 2
e
4 r  jkr k r 
E  0 Fig. 4.1(b) Geometrical arrangement

of an infinitesimal dipole and its
[4-10] associated electric-field components
on a spherical surface
9
l  /50
(CONT)
Using H, Er, E, calculate the complex Poynting vector
 1   1
W  ( E  H )   aˆ E H   a E H  

2 2 r    r 
2
  I  sin 2   1 
W 
r 8  o  1  j 
2 3
   r  (kr ) 
 
2
 k I  cos sin   1 
W  j o 1  j 
 16  2 r 3  2
(kr )  [4-12]
10
l  /50
(CONT)
Find total outward flux through a closed sphere
 
P   W  ds
s
(only contributions from Wr)
2 
  0
d  0
Wr r 2 sin  d [4-14]
2
  I o   1 
   1  j (kr ) 3 
3    
11
l  /50
(CONT)
Find total outward flux through a closed sphere

Real P total radiated power Prad
2 [4-16]

 I o 1 2
Prad 
    I o Rr [4-19]
3 2
2

Radiation resistance Rr  80  2 2

for free-space where   120 

Example:    0.02   Rr  0.316 
50
(Impedance would also have a large capacitive term that is not calculated here.)
12
l  /50
(CONT)
Imaginary part of P reactive power in the radial direction
2
  I o  1
    [4-17]
3    kr  3
(Note: this  0 as kr  , so it is
essentially not present in far field;
only important in near and intermediate field considerations)
13
l  /50
(CONT)
Near Field approximations

[ kr  1 ]
(field point very close or very low frequency case)
 I o  e  jkr
Dominant terms  Er   j cos 
2 k r 3
Like ‘quasistationary” fields
E near static electric dipole
 I o e  jkr
H near static current element
E   j sin 
4 k r 3
I o  e  jkr [4-20]
H  sin 
4 r 2
14
(CONT)
Near Field approximations

[ kr  1 ]
 I
Biot – Savart Law :
H  aˆ  o 2 sin  (same as above when kr 0)
infinitesimal current

element in az direction
4 r
 1  
Wavg  Re [ E  H ] [4-21] (note E and H are 90° out of phase)
2

Wavg  0 [4-22] NO RADIAL POWER FLOW --
REACTIVE FIELDS
15
(CONT)
Intermediate Fields
[ kr > 1]
(induction zone; still have radial fields)
• Er  1/r • E  1/r • H  1/r
16
(CONT)
Intermediate r = /2 (Radian Distance)

Region (Radius of Radian Sphere)
Induction Zone
Energy
basically
Energy Real
basically (radiating)
imaginary Far field
(stored)
Near field
Fig. 4.2 Radiated field terms magnitude

variation versus radial distance
17
(CONT)
Far Field [ kr >> 1 ]
 k I o  e  jkr
E  j sin 
Dominant terms  4 r
k I o  e  jkr
H  j sin 
[4-26]
4 r
Er  E  H r  H  0
18
l  /50
(CONT)
Far Field [ kr >> 1 ]
E
  ( both E and H are TEM toâ r )
[4-27]
H

Similar to plane wave, but propagation in aˆ r direction

1
With and sin  variations
r
19
(CONT)
Directivity (use Far Field approx.)
 1     k I  2 sin 2 
W
avg
 Re[ E  H ]  aˆ
r2  o  [4-28]
2  4   r2
2
  k I  [4-29]
RADIATION INTENSITY U  r2W   o  sin 
2
avg 2  4  
2 2
  I   sin 
 o
avg 8    r 2
Note: W as before for Real ( Wr )
 
20
(CONT)
Directivity
2
  I o 
U 8    3 [4-31]
D  4  max Do  4   1.5
o P    I o
2
2
rad
3   
2
  k I 
U
max
  o   in  =90 direction 
2  4  
2
  I 
P
rad
  o 
3   
21
SMALL DIPOLE /50 < l < /10
/50 < l < /10
Uniform current assumption - only valid for ideal case

( approximated by capacitor plate antenna)
 k I o  e  jkr
E  j sin 
8 r ½ value of fields compared
to constant current case
k I o  e  jkr
H   j sin 
8 r
[4-36]
22
/50 < l < /10
SMALL DIPOLE
(CONT)
For physical small dipole

triangular current distribution
2
  I o 
Prad 
12    
1 value of case of [4-37]
4 constant current
2
 
Rr  20  2  
 
same as constant
Do  1.5 current case
23
FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE
(length comparable to )
1  z 2 
R  r  z cos   
'
sin 2    
r 2 
approx. error
[4.41]
(max error where  = 90° ; 4th term = 0 there) Fig. 4.5 Finite dipole geometry
and far-field approximations
24
(CONT)
Phase and Magnitude considerations
In calculating phase assume

can tolerate phase error of /8 (22°)
Must choose r far enough

away so that ….
25
(CONT)
Phase and Magnitude considerations
k z 2  '  2  2  2 2
 max z   r  [4-45]
2r 8 2  8r 8 
1 ORIGIN OF
for magnitude term  use R  r
r DEFINITION
for phase term e jkr  use R  r - z cos OF FAR FIELD
26
FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE /2 < l < 
(CONT)
Finite dipole Current distribution
(“thin” wire, center fed, zero current at end points)
   
aˆ I sin  k   z '   z'

 0   [4-56]
 '  z o  2  2
I ( x  0, y '  0, z ' )  
e
aˆ I sin  k    z '   

 z'  0
 z o   2 
 2
(see Fig. 4.8)
27
DIPOLE
Current distribution for linear wire antenna
Fig. 4.8 Current distribution along

the length of a linear wire antenna
28
(CONT)
Radiated fields at (x, y, z)

of finite dipole
For infinitesimal dipole at z’ of length  z’

 '  jkR
I (z ) e
d E  j  k e
4 R
sin  d z ' R  
x 2  y 2  z  z'  2
Since source
is only
along the z axis
( x '  0, y '  0
)
29
(CONT)
Radiated fields of finite dipole at (x, y, z)

In far field region
d E  j  k e
I ( z ' ) e  jkr ( jkz R 
sin  e letcos d z '
' r  z ' cos  )
in phase term 4  r
[4-58]
30
(CONT)
Far Field E & H Radiating fields
Total Field
/ 2
E   d E
 / 2
 k e  jkr / 2

jkz ' cos
E  j sin  '
Ie (z ) e d z' [4-58a]
4 r  / 2
31
(CONT)
Far Field E & H Radiating fields
For sinusoidal current distribution

  k   k  
 I o e  jkr  cos 2 cos    cos 2  
E  j     
2 r  sin  
 
[4-62]
E
H 

32
(CONT)
 Power Density
2
  k   k  
 cos  cos    cos  
 Io2  2   2 
Wr avg  
8 2 r 2  sin   [4-63]
 
33
l ≥ /2
(CONT)
 Radiation Intensity
2
  k   k  
 2
cos cos    cos 
 Io2  2 
U  r 2 Wavg    
[4-64]
8 2  sin  
 
34
(CONT)
 3-dB BEAMWIDTH
90° 87°
3-dB BEAMWIDTH
78°
64°
48°


.25 0.5 0.75 1
35
(CONT)
 3-dB BEAMWIDTH
If allow    new
lobes begin to appear
Fig. 4.7(b) 2-D amplitude pattern for a thin dipole

l = 1.25  and sinusoidal current distribution
36
Elevation plane amplitude patterns for a thin dipole with sinusoidal current distribution
Fig. 4.6
37
(CONT)
Radiated power
 
Prad   Wavg  ds 
Results of integration give terms involving Ci & Si [4-68]
38
(CONT)
Radiated power
sin and cos integrals

(tabulated functions like trig. functions, but not as common)
Can find Rr and Do in terms of Ci and Si [4-70] [4-75]
Do, Rr, Rin plotted in fig. 4.9
39
FINITE LENGTH
DIPOLE
Radiation resistance, input resistance and directivity of a thin dipole with sinusoidal current
distribution
Fig. 4.9
40
(CONT)
Input Resistance
(note that Rr uses Imax in its derivation) z’

 
2 V
Z in  at input
I terminals
Ie (z’)
for I o  I max
I in  Io
41
(CONT)
Input Resistance
z’
So, even for lossless antenna ( RL = 0 )
2
I  Rr
Rr  Rin  Rin   o  Rr  Ie (z’)
 I in   k 
sin 2  
[4-77a]
2
I o  I max
42
(CONT)
Input Resistance (cont)
Note: when   n ; I in  0 and Rin 
Not true in practical case, current not

exactly sinusoidal at the feed point
(due to non-zero radius of wire and
finite feed gap at terminals)
Numerous ways to account

for more exact current distribution,
result in currents that are both in
and out of phase, and in Rin + j Xin
(subject of extensive research,
numerical and analytical)
43
(CONT)
Empirical formula for Rin
k 
let G for dipole of length   G
2 
( max Rin  200 

  ) ( max Rin  12 
  )
 
Rin  20G 2 0   
4
0  G 
4
Rin  24.7 G 2.5    

    G  ( max Rin  76 
   )
4 2 4 2
Rin  11 .14 G 4.17 

   0.64 

 G  2
2 2
[4-107] [4-110]
44
For MONOPOLE
G  k 1
for 4
wavelength monopole
1
Rin (monopole) R
2
in (dipole)
1
Z in   73  j 42.5 [4-106]
2
Z in  36.5  j 21.2  
1 1
same current; voltage  impedance
2 2
45
HALF WAVE DIPOLE l= /2
   
 Io e  jkr  cos 2 cos   
E  j    
2 r  sin   [4-84]
 
   
Io e  jkr  cos 2 cos   
   
1
H  j
2 r  sin   [4-85] 0.9
  0.8 sin 2 
0.7
Normalized Power
0.6
2
    0.5
 Io
2  cos 2 cos   
   0.4
Wavg   [4-86]
8 2 r 2 sin 
0.3
 
 
sin 3 
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
q (deg)
 
cos 2  cos  
 Io
2

2  d
Prad 
4 
0 sin 
[4-88]
46
l = /2
HALF WAVE DIPOLE
(CONT)
 I2
P  o C (2  ) where C (2  )  2.435 [4-89]
rad 8 in in
U max
Do  4   1.64
Prad
[4-91] Slightly more
directive than
inf. dipole with
Do = 1.5
47
l = /2
HALF WAVE DIPOLE

(CONT)
P 
Rr  2 rad  C (2  )  73 
I 2 4 in
o
Rin  Rr since I max  I in  if lossless 
X in  42.5     Z in  73  j 42.5   
[4-93]
48
l slightly < /2
PRACTICAL DIPOLE

Usually choose  slightly less than
2
so that X  0 & Z is totally real
in in
Folded dipole
Rin  300  

Useful for matching to wire lines where

2
Z o  300   
49
l slightly < /2
PRACTICAL DIPOLE
(CONT)
Resistance and Reactance Variations


(pure real for length slightly less than )
2
G,B
0.5 1.0

50
IMAGE THEORY
Direct
Reflected
h1 h2
Linear antennas near an infinite ground plane

could approximate case of earth.
Can calculate the fields in the UHP by removing the conductor

and finding the field due to the actual and image sources.
51
IMAGE THEORY
(CONT)
Observation
Point
Observation
Point
h h 

 
 h
Image
Actual Problem Equivalent Problem
 
In the Lower Half Plane, E = H = 0
52
IMAGE THEORY
(CONT)
Fields due to image source are actually produced

by the induced currents in the ground plane
 


 
I I
I
actual actual actual

image image image
I I I
53
Electric dipoles above an infinite perfect electric conductor
VERTICAL DIPOLE HORIZONTAL DIPOLE
Fig. 4.12(a) Vertical electric dipole above an Fig. 4.24 Horizontal electric dipole, and its associated
Infinite, flat, perfect electric conductor image, above an infinite, flat, perfect electric conductor
54
Electric dipoles above ground plane
Fig. 4.14(a) Fig. 4.25(a)
55
Electric dipoles above an infinite perfect electric conductor
Far Field
Fig. 4.14(b) Fig. 4.25(b)
56
FAR FIELD RADIATING FIELDS
r1 r1
z
z
r r
r2 r
h  h 2
y 
y
h
h

x
s
x
co
r1  r  h cos  approx. in
h
r2  r  h cos  phase terms

[4-97]
r1  r2  r3 in magnitude terms
[4-98]
57
(CONT)
E  Ed1  Er2 Summing two contributions

E  Ed1  Er 2
total = incident + reflected total = actual + imaginary
 k I o  e  jkr1  k I o  e  jkr1
E  j
d
sin 1 [4-94] E d
  j sin [4-111]
4  r1 4  r1
 k I o  e  jkr 2
E  j
r
sin  2  k I o  e  jkr2
4  r2 [4-95]
r
E
  j sin [4-112]
4  r2
58
(CONT)
VERTICAL DIPOLE
HORIZONTAL DIPOLE
cos  sin  sin 

E  j
 k I o e  jkr
4 r

sin  e  jkh cos  e jkh cos 
sin  1  sin 2  sin 2 
E  j
4 r

sin e  jkh cos  e jkh cos 
59
(CONT)
E  j 1  sin 2  sin 2   2 j sin  kh cos   
4 r
E  j sin   2 cos  kh cos   
4 r
array factor
Single source at origin
Single source at origin array factor [4-116]
[4-99]
E  0 for z  0
60
Amplitude patterns at different heights
2h
 1

Fig. 4.15
Fig. 4.26
Note minor lobes that are Note minor lobes that are
formed for  
h  formed for h 
4 2
2h
Number of lobes [4-100] Number of lobes  [4-117]

61
Amplitude patterns at different heights
(CONT)
Fig. 4.16
Fig. 4.28
Note max radiation is in  = 90° direction
62
 RADIATION POWER
VERTICAL DIPOLE
cos 2kh sin 2kh 

2
 I   1
Prad    o    
   3  2kh 2  2kh 3  HORIZONTAL DIPOLE
[4-102]
sin  2kh  cos 2kh  sin  2kh  

2
 I   1
Prad    o     
   3  2kh  2kh 2  2kh 3  [4-118]
R(kh)
63
DIRECTIVITY
 
 
U max 2
Do  4    
Prad  1 cos 2kh  sin  2kh   
   
  3  2kh  2  2kh 3  
4   
kh  h  
[4-104] R(kh) 2  4
Fig. 4.29 Radiation resistance and max. directivity

of a horizontal infinitesimal electric dipole as a
function of its height above an infinite perfect
electric conductor.
U max 4 sin 2  kh    
Do  4   kh  h  
Prad R(kh) 2  4
Fig. 4.18 Directivity and radiation resistance

Of a vertical infinitesimal electric dipole as a
function of its height above an infinite perfect
electric conductor.
[4-123]
64
DIRECTIVITY
(CONT)
VERTICAL DIPOLE
HORIZONTAL DIPOLE
Limiting case of kh

Note: Note: direction of maximum radiation
changes as “h” is varied. Dg (=0)
x2 x4
cos x  1   
2 4!
x3 x5
sin x  x   
3! 5!
cos x 1 1 x2
  
x2 x2 2 4  3 2 Dg
(=0)
sin x 1 1 x2
  
x3 x2 6 5 4 3 2
1 cos x sin x
  2

3 x x3
h/
1 1 1 x2  1 1 x2 
   2      2   
3 x 2 4 3 2 x 6 5  4  3 2 
1 1 1 4 2
    
3 2 6 6 3
65
DIRECTIVITY
(CONT)
2
Do  1
 6
lim
3
 sin  kh  
2
kh 
Do  7.5  (kh)  [4-124]

lim  
2 kh 0
Do 
2
 3
lim
kh 0 3
h/ Do
kh h/ Do
0 7.5
0 0 3
.615+n/2 slightly
2.88 .458 6.57 (n=1,2,3…)  6.0
  6.0  6.0
66
Input Impedance of a /2 dipole above a
flat lossy electric conductive surface
VERTICAL DIPOLE
Z in  Rin  jX in
Fig. 4.20
Z in  73  j 42.5  
67
Input Impedance of a /2 dipole above a
flat lossy electric conductive surface
HORIZONTAL DIPOLE
Z in  Rin  X in
Fig. 4.30 Z in  73  j 42.5  
68
GROUND EFFECTS
(“real” earth as ground plane)
Finite conductivity earth

10  1 [S/m]
Direct
h1
Reflected
h2
earth
Assume earth flat (ok. for Rearth  )
69
GROUND EFFECTS
(CONT)
(real earth as ground plane)
Fig. 4.31 Elevation plane amplitude patterns Fig. 4.32 Elevation plane ( = 90°)amplitude patterns
of an infinitesimal vertical dipole above a perfect of an infinitesimal horizontal dipole above a perfect
electric conductor = and a flat earth = 0.01 [S/m] electric conductor = and a flat earth = 0.01 [S/m]
70
GROUND EFFECTS
(CONT)
(real earth as ground plane)
For low and medium frequency applications when

height is comparable to skin depth [   ]
of the ground  increasing changes in input
impedance; less efficient; use of ground wires)
71
GROUND EFFECTS
(CONT)
EARTH CURVATURE
Usually negligible effect

for observation angle 
greater than 3°.
Fig. 4.34 Geometry for reflections from a spherical surface
72
GROUND EFFECTS
(CONT)
EARTH CURVATURE
Curved surfaces spreads out radiation (divergent) that is

reflected more than from flat surface.
(can introduce a divergence factor)
Divergence factor 
Esr
E rf

 reflected field from spherical surface
reflected field from flat surface
Fig. 4.35 Divergence factor for a 4/3 radius earth

(ae = 5,280 mi = 8,497.3 km) as a function of
grazing angle .
73
DIPOLE SUMMARY
(Resonant  XA=0; f = 100 MHz;  = 5.7 x 107 S/m; Zc = 50; b = 3x10-4l)
l=/50 l=/10 l=/2 l=
Rhf 0.0279 0.2792 0.698 1.3962

RL 0.0279 0.1396 0.349 0.6981
Rr 0.3158 1.9739 73 199
Rin 0.3158 1.9739 73 
ecd 0.9188 0.9339 0.9952 0.9965
(-0.368 dB) (-0.296 dB) (-0.021 dB) (-0.015 dB)
D0 1.5 1.5 1.6409 2.411
(1.761 dB) (1.761 dB) (2.151 dB) (3.822 dB)
G0 1.3782 1.4009 1.6331 2.4026
(1.393 dB) (1.464 dB) (2.13 dB) (3.807 dB)
 -0.9863 -0.9189 0.18929 1
er 0.0271 0.1556 0.9642 0
(-15.67 dB) (-8.08 dB) (-0.158 dB) (- Db)
G0abs 0.0374 (-14.27 dB) 0.2181 (-6.613 dB) 1.5746 (1.972 dB) 0 (- dB)
74

ANTENAS

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ANTENAS

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Chapter 4

Linear Wire Antennas

(only electrical current present )

Fig. 4.1(a) Geometrical arrangement

 xx    y  y'    z  z' 

 o  ' ' ' e  jkR

 mixed coordinates in expression

 mixed coordinates in expression

Using Vector Potential A ,

Using Vector Potential A ,

Using Maxwell’s Eqns to

E  0 Fig. 4.1(b) Geometrical arrangement

Using H, Er, E, calculate the complex Poynting vector

Find total outward flux through a closed sphere

Find total outward flux through a closed sphere

Imaginary part of P reactive power in the radial direction

Near Field approximations

Near Field approximations

(induction zone; still have radial fields)

• Er  1/r • E  1/r • H  1/r

Intermediate r = /2 (Radian Distance)

Fig. 4.2 Radiated field terms magnitude

Far Field [ kr >> 1 ]

Far Field [ kr >> 1 ]

Similar to plane wave, but propagation in aˆ r direction

Directivity (use Far Field approx.)

/50 < l < /10

Uniform current assumption - only valid for ideal case

For physical small dipole

Phase and Magnitude considerations

In calculating phase assume

Must choose r far enough

Phase and Magnitude considerations

(“thin” wire, center fed, zero current at end points)

(see Fig. 4.8)

Current distribution for linear wire antenna

Fig. 4.8 Current distribution along

Radiated fields at (x, y, z)

For infinitesimal dipole at z’ of length  z’

Radiated fields of finite dipole at (x, y, z)

Far Field E & H Radiating fields

Far Field E & H Radiating fields

For sinusoidal current distribution

.25 0.5 0.75 1

Fig. 4.7(b) 2-D amplitude pattern for a thin dipole

Results of integration give terms involving Ci & Si [4-68]

sin and cos integrals

Can find Rr and Do in terms of Ci and Si [4-70] [4-75]

Do, Rr, Rin plotted in fig. 4.9

(note that Rr uses Imax in its derivation) z’

So, even for lossless antenna ( RL = 0 )

Input Resistance (cont)

Note: when   n ; I in  0 and Rin 

Not true in practical case, current not

Numerous ways to account

Empirical formula for Rin

( max Rin  200 

Rin  24.7 G 2.5    

Rin  11 .14 G 4.17 

HALF WAVE DIPOLE

Rin  Rr since I max  I in  if lossless 

Resistance and Reactance Variations

Linear antennas near an infinite ground plane