NDT Training

Appreciation
to NDT
 NDT Methods
• Penetrant Testing
• Magnetic Particle
Testing
• Eddy Current Testing
• Ultrasonic Testing
• Radiographic Testing

• Magnetic Flux Leakage

• Acoustic Emission
• Infrared Testing
• Visual Testing
• Other methods
 NDT
• Which method is the best ?
Depends on many factors and conditions
 NDT
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Definition:
A procedure, which covers the inspection and/or testing of any
material, component or assembly by means, which do not affect
its ultimate serviceability.
 NDT

Industries involved with NDT:

•Oil and Gas •Metal Manufacturing
•Construction •Composite Manufacturing
•Metal Fabrication •Inspection and Testing
•Chemical •Research and Development
•Aerospace •Training and Certification
•Power Generation
 CERTIFICATIONS AND
QUALIFICATIONS
NDT personnels should posses high credibility
and integrity
Proper training and certification required
•Training : By qualified training personnels and
accredited training centres
•International Certification Schemes available:
 Penetrant Testing
Also known as Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)
• Surface Testing method
• For detecting surface breaking defects (opened to
surface)
• Applicable to all materials -except for excessively
porous (absorbing) materials
 Penetrant Testing:
SurfaceTesting
Maybe detected by Penetrant Testing

OPEN TO SURFACE/
SURFACE BREAKING Cannot be detected by
Penetrant Testing

SUBSURFACE

INTERNAL

Penetrant Testing can only detect surface breaking defects

Penetrant must be able to enter the defect to form indication
 Penetrant Testing

• Not suitable for porous or very absorbent

materials

Examples:
Wood
Cloth
Unglazed ceramic /pottery
 Basic Steps

•Pre-cleaning

•Penetrant application

•Removal of excess
penetrant

•Application of
Developer
•Inspection

•Post-cleaning
 Penetrant Testing

• Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to

component

Aerosol Spraying Immersion Brushing Electrostatic

 Penetrant Testing

• Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to

component and drawn into defect by
capillary action
 Principle : Capillary Action
• Interaction of adhesive and cohesive
forces
meniscus
 Capillarity
• The ability of a material to enter opening
examples: tube or defects

The formula
= 2S Cos 
W
= Capillary pressure
S = Surface tension
 = Contact angle
W = Width of opening
 Penetrant Testing

• Removal of excess penetrant

Removal of excess penetrant
 Penetrant Testing

•Application of developer
 Penetrant Testing

Penetrant drawn back out of the defect by

reverse capillary action
 Penetrant Testing

Penetrant which pulled out from the defect by the

developer forms indication of the defect

Indications
 Advantages of PT

• Applicable to non-ferromagnetics
• Able to test large parts with a portable
kit
• Batch testing
• Applicable to small parts with complex
geometry
• Simple,cheap easy to interpret
• Sensitivity
 Disadvantages of PT

• Will only detect defects open to the

surface
• Careful surface preparation required
• Not applicable to porous materials
• Temperature dependant
• Cannot retest indefinitely
• Compatibility of chemicals
 System classification
PENETRANT

Colour Contrast

Fluorescent

Dual sensitivity
 Colour Contrast Penetrant

Also known as Visible Dye Penetrant

Uses white light : Daylight or artificial white light

Bright coloured dye : usually RED

 Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
• Fluorescent more
sensitive
• Less operator fatigue
with fluorescent
• More difficulty in
monitoring
fluorescent
penetrant removal
 Water Washable Penetrant

Also known as SELF-EMULSIFIED PENETRANT

Pre-mixed penetrant and emulsifier

Easily washed by water rinse

+
=
Emulsifier Water
Oily
Washable
Penetrant
Penetrant
Water WashablePenetrant
 WATER
SPRAY

PENETRANT
Penetrant been washed off
Deep or gross defects
Shallow wide defects shows
 Water Washable Penetrant
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Ideal for rough • Susceptible to over
surfaces washing
• Suitable for batch • Least sensitive
testing method
• Cheaper than other • Requirement for a
methods water source
• Corrosion problems
 Solvent Removable
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Not suited to batch
• Portability
testing
• No water supply
• Requires hand wiping
needed
so time consuming
• More expensive than
water washable
• Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Solvent Removable
 Post Emulsifiable Penetrant
Stages
• Immerse component in penetrant
• Immerse component in emulsifier
• Emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant making
it water washable
• Water wash removes excess penetrant
mixed with emulsifier
• Penetrant in defects left unaffected
 Post emulsifiable

Now the surface

penetrant is
water washable

Post Emulsifiable Emulsifier

Penetrant
 Post emulsifiable

Water
Spray

Penetrant mixed with emulsifierEmulsifier

Penetrant
Only penetrant on the surface removed
Penetrant in defect not mixed with emulsifier :
NOT REMOVED
 Post emulsifiable
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• High Sensitivity • Not suitable for
• Maximum rough surfaces
penetrating ability • More expensive
• Greater control over • More time
penetrant removal consuming
 Developer Sensitivity
• Dry powder 100 - 140 %
• Aqueous solution 110 - 150 %
• Aqueous suspension 120 - 200%
• Non-Aqueous 120 - 240%
 Penetrant Systems
PENETRANT REMOVAL DEVELOPERS

• Colour • Solvent • Dry powder

contrast
• Fluorescent • Water • Aqueous
washable

• Dual • Post • Non-Aqueous

emulsifiable
 Selection of System

• Nature of discontinuities (size and type)

• Geometry and intricacy
• Surface condition

• Component material
• Size and position
• Equipment and expertise available
• Cost
• Number of components to be tested
 Selection of System
• Inspection of a large number of
threaded components

• What method will you select and why ?

Fluorescent water washable with dry

powder developer
• Fluorescent for mass inspections
• Water washable more suited than solvents to
batch inspections
• Post emulsifiable difficult to remove from
threads
 Selection of System
• Inspection of turbine blades for fatigue
cracks

What method will you select and why ?

• Fluorescent post emulsifiable with non-

aqueous developer

• Fluorescent more sensitive than colour contrast

• Post emulsifiable more sensitive than water
washable
• Non-aqueous developer most sensitive
 Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of large aircraft components
 Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Testing of small components
 Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of various small components
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Part 2

NDT Training & Certification

Magnetic Particle Testing
 Magnetism
The phenomenon of certain materials which attract
certain other materials e.g.. pieces of iron to themselves

e t
gn
a
m

S N S N
 Magnetic Particle Testing

• Test method for the detection of

surface and sub-surface

defects
in ferromagnetic materials
 Magnetic Particle Testing

CANNOT BE
MT MT DETECTED BY
Magnetic Particle
Testing
Surface Defect Subsurface Internal

Ferromagnetic Material
 Magnetic Particle Testing

Basic Steps
• Magnetic field induced
in component
• Defects disrupt the
magnetic flux
• Defects revealed by
applying
ferromagnetic
particles
 Lines of force
• By convention they flow from North to
South outside and South to North inside
• Form closed loops
• Never cross
• Field is strongest where most numerous
• Follow path of least resistance
 Definitions
• Magnetic field : Region in which
magnetic forces exist

N S
 Definitions
• Flux : line of magnetic force existing
in a magnetic circuit

Ф
 Definitions
• Flux Density : Magnetic flux per unit cross-
section area
• (measured in Teslas)

Low Flux Density: Less

Flux per unit area

High Flux Density:

More Flux per unit
area
 Definitions
1 Tesla = 10 000 gauss
How many line of force are there in an 1 cm² area with a
Flux Density of 1 Tesla?

1 cm

10 000 = 10 lines

1 cm
 BS 6072
• The FLUX DENSITY on the surface of the
component must be at lease 0.72 T

• Below that the indication will be too

weak

Below 0.72 TESLA Above 0.72 TESLA

 In General:

Increasing the Magnetising Force

0500
0100
0000 will increase the Magnetic Field
AMMETER Measured in Ampere per meter ( A/m)

Ф
 Permeability
The ease with which a material can be
magnetised
 Permeability
Magnetised using 100 amps Magnetised using 100 amps
Ф
Ф

A B
High Permeability: Low Permeability:
Easy to be magnetised Difficult to be magnetised
 Materials Behaviours in
Magnetic Field
Diamagnetic: Slightly repelled by magnetic field
Examples Gold, Copper, Water and most
non-metal

Ф
DIAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested

 Materials Behaviours in
Magnetic Field
Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted by magnetic field
Examples Aluminium, Tungsten and
most metals

Ф
PARAMAGNETIC

Unable to be Magnetically tested

 Materials Behaviours in
Magnetic Field
Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted by magnetic
field
ExamplesIron, Cobalt, Nickel and their alloys

FERROMAGNETIC

Suitable to be Magnetically tested

 Permeability
• A unit of comparison: compared to free space
Examples:

• Air 1
• Iron560
• Steel 1000
• Mu Metal 80 000
• Paramagnetics Slightly > 1
• Diamagnetics Slightly < 1
• Ferromagnetics 240 +
 Other Forms of Magnet
Horseshoe
Magnet

N S Ring
Magnet
Equipment
 Electromagnetism
• A current flows through a conductor and
sets up a magnetic field around it
• Field is at 90o to the direction of the
electrical current
Direction
of current
flow

Direction of magnetic field

 Coil Magnetisation

• Changes circular filed into longitudinal

• Increases the strength of the field
 Coil Magnetisation

• Longitudinal Magnetic Field

• Detect transverse defects
 Principle of MT : Flux Leakage
Ferromagnetic
Particles

Flux
N Leakage

S Attracted
at poles

Ring Magnet Ring Magnet

Magnetic field is Fully Flux Leakage occurs:
contained: No Poles Poles created
 Principle of MPI : Flux
Leakage
No Defect Defect

Flux Leakage
N S N S

The change in permeability causes flux leakage

 Principle of MPI : Flux
Leakage

N S

STEEL µ= 1000

No Flux Leakage because No change in permeability

 Principle of MPI : Flux
Leakage

Flux Leakage
N AIR µ= 1 S
N S

STEEL µ= 1000

The change in permeability causes flux leakage

 Factors Affecting Flux Leakage

• Depth of defect
• Orientation of defect shape of defect
• Size of defect
• Permeability of material
• Amount of flux available
 Depth below surface

N S N S
 Defect Orientation

Defect at 90 degrees to flux : maximum

indication
 Defect Orientation

>45 Degrees to Flux: Acceptable

indication
 Defect Orientation

How to detect the ones missed?

 All surface defects form indications

But not all indications are

caused by defects

Non-relevant Chisel
indications
Due to flux leakage but Splines Rough
Furring
arising from design features or Surface
Rivet
geometry
Keyway
• Changes in section Toe of welds
• Changes in permeability
• Furring
 Furring
Caused by:
Sharp change of contour

Furring Furring
 Furring
Caused by:
Excessive flux on the surface or ends of
component

Furring
 Magnetic Writing
Caused by:
Localised polarization when magnetised object
induced the magnetic field into another object
 Spurious / False Indications
Indications caused by operator errors
Not due to flux leakage

• Lint
• Dirt
• Hairs
 Relevant/ True Indications
Indications caused by defects
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
 Inks and Powders
Particles in Inks or Powders
MT Inks
Black and
Fluorescent

MT Powders
Colour
contrast and
Fluorescent
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of Fluorescent Ink on weld
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of Ultraviolet Light with
Fluorescent Ink in weld testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of a.c. Electromagnetic Yoke with Black Ink
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of MT Bench Unit with Fluorescent Ink
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Component under test with currentflow and fluorescent ink
 Magnetic Particle Testing
Usage of Prods with black ink on weld
Eddy Current Testing
 Eddy Current Testing
• An alternating
current is passed
through a coil
Eddy Current Testing
• An alternating current is
passed through a coil
• A.C. generates an
alternating field
• Alternating field
generates eddy
currents in conductors
Eddy Current Testing
• An alternating current is
passed through a coil
• A.C. generates an
alternating field
• Alternating field
generates eddy
currents in conductors
• Eddy currents generate
opposing field which
modifies current in coil
 Eddy Current Testing

Defects will interrupt the eddy current

Interruption in the coil current is displayed on the set

Eddy Current Testing
Equipment
 Eddy Current
Electrical currents induced in metals by
alternating magnetic fields

The size of the current is affected by

• Electrical conductivity
• Stand off distance
• Flaws
• Permeability
• Specimen dimensions
 Advantages of ET

• Sensitive to surface defects

• Can detect through several layers
• Can detect through surface coatings
• Accurate conductivity measurements
• Can be automated
• Little pre-cleaning required
• Portability
 Disadvantages of ET

• Very susceptible to permeability changes

• Only on conductive materials
• Will not detect defects parallel to surface
• Not suitable for large areas and/or
complex geometry's
• Signal interpretation required
• No permanent record (unless automated)
• Expensive equipment
 NDT Training & Certification

Ultrasonic Testing
 Ultrasonic Testing
Principle
• High frequency
sound sound waves
are introduced into a
material
• Reflected sound
gives information on
the material under
test and signals
displayed on a CRT
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested

The sound reflected back to the
probe is displayed on
the Flaw Detector
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance

Signal from the backwall

Bottom / Backwall
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of
the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material

The BWE signal

Defect signal

Defect
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

60 mm

The depth of the defect can be read with reference

to the marker on the screen
 Thickness / depth measurement

The closer the reflector

C B A
to the surface, the
signal will be more to
the left of the screen

30 46 68

The thickness is read from the screen

The THINNER the material

C the less distance the sound
travel
B

A
Ultrasonic Testing Applications
Probes
 Probe Design
• Compression Probe
– Normal probe
Electrical
– 0° connectors

Housing
Damping
Transducer
 Probe Design
• Shear Probe
– Angle probe

Backing
medium
Damping
Transducer

Probe
Shoe

Perspex wedge
 Probe Design
Advantages
Twin Crystal • Can be focused
• Measure thin plate
Transmitter Receiver
• Near surface
resolution

Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
• Signal amplitude /
Focusing focal spot length
Separator /
Insulator lens
 Gap Scanning
• Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
• Couplant is fed into
the gap
 Immersion Testing
• Component is placed
in a water filled tank
• Item is scanned with
a probe at a fixed
distance above the
surface
 Immersion Testing

Water
path
distance

Front surface Back surface

Defect

Water path distance

AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM
C-Scan Presentation
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM
P-Scan Scanner
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM
P-Scan Image Presentation
T-Scan Image Presentation
TOFD –Time of Flight Diffraction
TOFD Images
 Area Monitoring
May 1999: tmin = 29.6 mm Dec. 1999: tmin = 29.6 mm

June 2000: tmin = 29.4 mm April 2001: tmin = 29.2 mm

 Methods of Setting Sensitivity
• Smallest defect at maximum test range
• Back wall echo
• Disc equivalent
• Grass levels
• Notches
• Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves
 Scanning Procedure
• Parent Material
0 degree both sides

• To maximum range for angle probes

• Full skip distance for 60 or 70 probes
 Scanning Procedure
• Weld Root
Half skip from both sides

For PCN exams :

• 70 degree probe at half skip from both sides
 Scanning Procedure
Weld Fusion Faces
• Half to full skip from both sides

A probe which strikes fusion faces at 90 degrees

Probe angle = 90 - (1/2 Root angle)

 Scanning Procedure
• Weld Body
Half skip to full skip from both sides

Full Skip 1/2 Skip

 Scanning Procedure
• Transverse
70 degree
 Nozzle Welds
• Scanning procedure
Tee butt welds
 Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends
and receives sound
• Gives an indication
of defect depth and
dimensions
• Not fail safe
 Defect Position

B
A

No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)

 Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal

No indication of
defect location

Fail safe method

 Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects don’t
matter show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
 Transmission with Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
 Advantages of UT
• Sensitive to cracks at various
orientations
• Portability
• Safety
• Able to penetrate thick sections
• Measures depth and through wall extent
 Disadvantages

• No permanent record (unless automated)

• Not easily applied to complex geometries
and rough surfaces.
• Unsuited to course grained materials
• Requires highly skilled and experienced
technicians
 NDT Training & Certification

Radiographic Testing
 Radiographic Testing
• Electromagnetic radiation is imposed
upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying
degrees dependant upon the density of
the material through which it is
travelling
• Variations in transmission detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and
composites
 Radiographic Testing
Radiation Source

Lower Higher
density density

Specimen

Film
 Radiographic Testing

Placing Film to be radiographed

 Radiation Sources

Isotopes produce Gamma rays X-Ray Tube

Examples: Co60, Ir192, Yb169
Radiographic Image
Techniques
Panoramic

Single Wall Single Image

Double Wall Double Image

 Gamma Rays vs X-Rays
• Safety
X-ray machines is normally safer: can be switched off/on
Gamma source: constant emission
• Capabilities
Gamma source have very high penetrating power
X-ray: intensity and wavelength can be adjusted
• Quality of images
In general: x-ray produces better quality
• Handling
Gamma sources are easier to handle
X-ray machine are bulky, fragile and requires electricity
• Cost
Gamma source are cheaper
 Radiographic Variables
• Density
The degree of film darkness
• Contrast
The differences in density between the
regions of the film
 Advantages of Radiography

• Permanent record
• Detection of Internal flaws
• Can be used on most materials
• Direct image of flaws
• Real - time imaging
 Disadvantages of Radiography
• Health hazard
• Sensitive to defect orientation
• Limited ability to detect fine
cracks
• Access to both sides required
• Limited by material thickness
• Skilled interpretation required
• Relatively slow
• High capital outlay and running
costs
 Acoustic Emission
• Transient stress waves from micro
structural changes detected by sensors

Stress waves
Stress
 Vacuum Box Testing
• Vacuum created within a perspex box
• Soapy liquid applied to surface
 Vacuum Box Testing
• Vacuum created within a perspex box
• Soapy liquid applied to surface
• Bubbles indicate through thickness
defect
Training & Certification

Any Questions Please ?

Training & Certification