Non-Destructive Testing

A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of

NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.

Four basic NDT methods

• Radiographic inspection (RT)

• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)

• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)

• Dye penetrant inspection (PT)

 Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)

Volumetric Inspection
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Radiography Testing(RT)

Some process can find both types

Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to:
• Technical Capability and Cost
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Main features:
 Detection of surface breaking defects only.
 Cheep and easy process
 Applicable on any material type, as long they are nonporous.
( Casting)
 Use Capillary action to draw penetrant.
 Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent
• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post- emulsifiable fluorescent
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent.
Step 2. Apply penetrant

•After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the

components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes
(dwell time).
•The penetrant enters any defects that may be present, by
capillary action.
•The penetrant is not allowed to dry out so can only be
apply at temperature between 5 to 50 degrees.
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
•The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell time
15-20 min).
•Wipe clean, using a lint free cloth moistened in a solvent remover
•Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any defects
present
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has been cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source

Bleed out viewed

under white light
Colour contrast Penetrant
Advantages Disadvantages
  Surface breaking defect only
Simple to use
  little indication of depths
Inexpensive
 Penetrant may contaminate
 Quick results
component
 Can be used on any non-  Surface preparation critical
porous material  Post cleaning required
 Portability  Potentially hazardous
 Low operator skill required chemicals
 Can not test unlimited times
 Temperature dependant
 Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials

DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue
Main features:
 Surface and slight sub-surface (up to 3mm) detection.
 Relies on magnetization of component being tested.
 Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested.
 A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being tested.
 Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent magnet,
prods and flexible cables.
 Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area.
 Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create a
leakage field, which attracts the particles.
 Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in the case
of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a green/yellow
indication.
Collection of magnetic particles Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
due to leakage field
 • Magnetizing force is applied by yoke.

• Magnetizing force is called flux.

• With defects the flus will leak out on

surface

• Prods conduct direct current to the

component.

• Their use is not recommended unless use

on rough casting,

• as less perfect the contact to maintain on

Prods DC or AC
surface they leave arc strike
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during magnatisin
g
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required
 Method

Contrast paint Magnet & Ink Result*

 A crack like
Unlike PT there is no bleeding, indication
hence prefer inspection method
for surface breaking defects on
steels.
Alternatively, to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used
for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple to use • Surface or slight sub-surface

detection only
• Inexpensive
• Magnetic materials only
• Rapid results
• No indication of defects
• Little surface preparation depths
required
• Only suitable for linear
• Possible to inspect through defects
thin coatings
• Detection is required in two
directions
 Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
• less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• Not use on thin material ( below 8 mm)
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses
and display the signals on a cathode ray tube or digital
display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the ultrasoni
c pulses to travel the distance to the interface and back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be introd
uced between the probe and specimen
• Use prob shear for fusion (used at 400, 550, 700 ) and
compression for lamination and thickness of material
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display

Compression probe checking the material Thickness

 defect Back wall
initial pulse echo echo

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display

 initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

Shear probe

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

Full Skip CRT Display

 Disadvantages
Advantages
 Trained and skilled operator
 Rapid results
required
 Both surface and
 Requires high operator skill
sub-surface detection  Good surface finish required
 Safe
 Defect identification
 Capable of measuring the
 Couplant may contaminate
depth of defects
 No permanent record
 May be battery powered
 Calibration Required
 Portable
 Ferritic Material (Mostly)
 Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
good for planar defects no permanent record

good for thick sections not suitable for very thin joints <8mm

instant results reliant on operator interpretation

can use on complex joints not good for sizing Porosity

can automate good/smooth surface profile needed

very portable not suitable for coarse grain materials

(e.g., castings)
no safety problems Ferritic Materials (with standard
equipment)
low capital & running costs
 Gamma Rays
X – Rays Generated by the decay
Electrically generated of unstable atoms
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling.
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph like Excess weld.
• Applicable to metals,Non-metals and composites
• Lamination and lack of fusion can not be detect.
 Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

10fe16
10fe16

Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

Next to the weld

Step/Hole Type IQI

Over the weld

Wire Type IQI
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• film inside, source outside

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

• film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
 • film inside, source outside
Radiation has travel to one thickness of a material
One image will appear

Film

Film

IQI’s should be placed source side

 • film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Film

• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single exposure)
 film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
Radiograph
 • film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
Elliptical Radiograph
 Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
•the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
•Increase the energy penetration power will increase

Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
•the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
•For thick material use cobalt and For thin selenium.
 Radiography
Gamma Sources
Isotope Thickness Energy Half Life
Range
Thulium 90 upto 7 mm 90 KV 128 days

Ytterbium 169 upto 12 mm 120 KV 32 Days

Iridium 192 10 to 75 mm 500 KV 74.4 Days

Cobalt 60 40~150 mm 1.2 MV 5.3 years

Iridium 192 mostly used due to good quality image

Advantages Disadvantages
• Permanent record • Expensive consumables

• Little surface preparation • Bulky equipment

• Defect identification • Harmful radiation

• No material type limitation • Defect require significant depth in

relation to the radiation beam (not
• Thin materials good for planar defects)
• Slow results
• Very little indication of depths
• Access to both sides required
 Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination

ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running
costs

can use on all material types not good for planar defects

high productivity X-ray sets not very portable

direct image of imperfections requires access to both sides of weld

frequent replacement of gamma source
needed (half life)