Electrical Machines

EE-260

Instructor: Dr Alina Mirza

Department of Electrical Engineering, Military College of Signals

National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Topics to be Covered

1. Energy losses in ferromagnetic core page#26

2. Chapter 2: Transformers

2
“Energy Losses in Ferromagnetic Core”
 Hysteresis loop

B
i
B-H or Hysteresis loop
Br saturation
3

knee point
4 5
0
0 1 2
1 2 3 t
Hc H

4 5

Br = Retentive flux density (due to property of retentivity)

Hc= Coercive field intensity (due to property of coercivity)
Step 1:When supply current I = 0, no flux density (B) and
magnetizing force (H).
Step 2:When current is increased from 0 to a certain value, both
(H) and B) are set up and increased following the path o – a.
Step 3:For a certain value of current,(B) becomes (B max). The
point indicates the magnetic saturation of this core material. All
element of core material get aligned perfectly.
Step 4:When the value of current is decreased from its value of
magnetic flux saturation, H is decreased along with decrement
of B not following the previous path rather following the curve a
– b.
Step 5:The point ‘b’ indicates H = 0 for I = 0 with a certain value
of B. This lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis. The point ‘b’
means after removing of magnetizing force (H), magnetism
property with little value remains in this magnetic material and
it is known as residual magnetism (B r). Here o – b is the value of
residual flux density due to retentivity of the material.
• Step 6:If the direction of the current I is reversed, the direction of H also gets reversed. The increment
of H in reverse direction following path b – c decreases the value of residual magnetism (B r) that gets
zero at point ‘c’ with certain negative value of H. This negative value of H is called coercive force (H c)
• Step 7:H is increased more in negative direction further; B gets reverses following path c – d. At
point‘d’, again magnetic saturation takes place but in opposite direction with respect to previous case.
At point‘d’, B and H get maximum values in reverse direction, i.e. (-B m and -Hm).
• Step 8:If we decrease the value of H in this direction, again B decreases following the path de. At point
‘e’, H gets zero valued but B is with finite value. The point ‘e’ stands for residual magnetism (-B r) of the
magnetic core material in opposite direction with respect to previous case.
• Step 9:If the direction of H again reversed by reversing the current I, then residual magnetism or
residual flux density (-Br) again decreases and gets zero at point ‘f’ following the path e – f. Again
further increment of H, the value of B increases from zero to its maximum value or saturation level at
Hysteresis Loop

• Dependence on flux history

and failure to retrace flux
paths is called hysteresis
• Path bcdeb is called
hysteresis loop.
• Residual flux
Magnetic Domains Orientation

The energy required to accomplish the reorientation of domains is

called hysterisis loss.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/hyst.html
9
Eddy Currents in Magnetic Field
A time changing flux induces voltage with in a
ferromagnetic (iron) core as it would in a wire
wrapped around it.
These voltage cause swirls of current (eddy currents)
with in the iron core.
Iron is a resistive material and energy will be
dissipated.
(Energy loss due to eddy current is directly
proportional to size of the path they follow)
Solution
 Transformer Action
Faraday’s law:
If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be
induced in the turn of wire, which is directly proportional to the
rate of change of flux w.r.t. time.

d
eind  
dt
d
eind  N
dt

By Lenz’ law, the induced voltage opposes the change that

causes it; thus a minus sign is included in the equation
 Lenz’s Law
“The direction of voltage build up in a coil is such that if the coil
ends were short circuited, it would produce current that would
cause a flux opposing the original change”.

13
 Flux Linkage in a Coil
It is assumed that the same flux is present in each turn of the coil which is
practically not true  due to flux leakage
The magnitude of the voltage in ith turn of
coil is give by: d (i )
eind  
dt
For N-Turns
N N di 
eind  e   
i 1 i i 1  dt 

eind 
d
N

dt i 1 i  Thus the induced voltage can be
d N expressed in terms of Flux Linkage
eind     i as well.
dt i 1

ø is the flux, and λ is the flux Linkage

expressed in wb. 14
 Chapter 2
Transformers
 Introduction
• A transformer is a device that trnsforms ac electric power at
one voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage
level through the action of a magnetic field.
• There are two or more stationary electric circuits that are
coupled magnetically.
• It involves interchange of electric energy between two or
more electric systems
• Transformers provide much needed capability of changing
the voltage and current levels easily.
• They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate
voltage level for power transfer.
• Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.
17
Primary and Secondary Windings

A two-winding transformer consists of two windings interlinked by a mutual

magnetic field.
• Primary winding – energized by connecting it to an input source
• Secondary winding – winding to which an electrical load is connected and from
which output energy is drawn.

Primary winding Secondary winding

In Physical transformers primary and secondary windings are wrapped one on top of the
Other with low voltage winding innermost.
• Insulating the high voltage winding from the core
• Smaller leakage flux
 Transformer Classification

• In terms of number of windings

• Conventional transformer: two windings
• Autotransformer: one winding
• Others: more than two windings

• In terms of number of phases

• Single-phase transformer
• Three-phase transformer

• Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated

• Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
• Step-down transformer : primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding
Ideal Transformers

• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an

output winding. It has the following properties:
• No iron and copper losses
• No leakage fluxes
• A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of infinite electrical resistivity
• Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances are negligible
Ideal Transformers

An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding

and an output winding.

fM

The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage,
and between the input current and the output current, are given by
the following equations.
v p  t  is  t 
 a
vs  t  i p  t 

a is called the turn ratio of the transformer

Derivation of the Relationship

d p  t  d M  t 
v p t   Np …………….. (1)
dt dt
d  t  d  t 
vs  t   s  N s M …………….. (2)
dt dt
v pt N p
Dividing (1) by (2)   a ………………......……….. (3)
vs  t  N s

N pi p  t   N s is  t 
is  t  N p
 a …………………..……….. (4)
ip t Ns

v pt is  t  N p
Equating (3) and (4)   a ………………….. (5)
vs  t  i p  t  N s
Ideal Transformers

v p t is  t  N p
  a
vs  t  i p  t  N s

In terms of phasor quantities

 𝐕 p 𝐈s
= =𝑎
𝐕𝐬 𝐈p

Np: Number of turns on the primary winding

Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side
Power in an Ideal Transformer

Real power P supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

Pin  V p I p cos  p
 p  s  
Real power coming out of the secondary circuit

 Vp 
Pout  Vs I s cos  s    aI p  cos 
 a 
 V p I p cos   Pin

Where p is the angle between primary current and voltage

Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.
 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
Impedance of the load:
Ip Is
Zs = Vs/Is

Vp Vs Zs
The impedance of the primary circuit:

Zp = Vp/Ip

= (aVs)/(Is /a)

= a2 (Vs / Is )

= a2 ZL Ip Is
Zp

Vp Vs
 Example-IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• Example: A single phase power system consists of a 480 V, 50 Hz
generator supplying a load Zload=4+j3 Ω through a transmission
line of impedance: Zline=0.18+j0.24 Ω .
• what is the voltage at load?
• What is the transmission losses?
Line Losses

Vload?
=90.8<-37.8’

Line losses are:

Ploss=I2lineRline
Conclusion

1. Energy losses in ferromagnetic core

page#26
2. Ideal Transformer pg#69

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